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By. 3. 




A 

GRAMMAR 

OF 

CHEMISTRY, 

WHEREIN 

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE ARE FAMILIARIZED 
BY A VARIETY OF EASY AND ENTERTAINING 

EXPERIMENTS ; 

WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE, 
AND A 

GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN COMMON USE. 



By the, Rev. I). BLAIR, 

Author of the Grammar of Philosophy ', Ifc.tS'c* 



CORRECTED AND REVISED 

By BENJAMIN TUCKER, 

Author of Sacred and Profane History epitomized, &c 



Intended as an Elementary Book for Schools, and a Companion for 

private Students, particularly those who wish to atteu4 

popular Lecture*. 



PHILADELPHIA- 
PUBLISHED AND SOLD By DAVTD ..tJ.QGAN;? 

No, 249, Market-street. 

mo. 



District of Pennsylvania, to wit .•' 
BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the thirteenth 
day of October, in the thirty-fifth year of the independ- 
ence of the United States of America, A. D. 1810 : David 
Mogan, of the said District, has deposited in this Office, 
the Title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as Pro- 
prietor, in the words following-, to wit : — A Grammar 
of Chemistry, wherein the principles of the Science are fa- 
miliarized by a variety of easy and entertaining Experi- 
ments ; with ^hiestionsfor exercise, and a Glossory of terms 
hi common use. By the Rev. D. Blair, author of the Gram- 
mar of Philosophy, &c. &c. Corrected and revised by 
Benjamin Tucker, author of Sacred and Profane History 
epitomized, lzfc. Intended as an Elementary Book for 
Schools, and a Companion for private Students, particular- 
ly those who wish to attend popular Lectures. In confor- 
mity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, in- 
tituled, "An Act for the encouragement of learning, 
by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, 
to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during 
the times therein mentioned;" And also to the Act, en- 
tituled " An act supplementary to an Act, entituled, An 
Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the 
Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and 
Proprietors of such Copies, during the times therein 
mentioned," and extending the Benefits thereof to the 
arts of designing, engraving, and etching Historical 
and other Prints." 

D. CALDWELL, Clerk 
of the District of Pennsylvania? 



s 
4 



PREFACE 

TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. 

THE science of Chemistry has become so 
popular and fashionable a study, that to be 
wholly unacquainted with it, rather betrays a 
mortifying ignorance. It seems therefore highly 
proper, that its elementary principles should be 
brought into so narrow a compass, as to enable 
every person to become acquainted with the 
general outlines of the Science, without intrud- 
ing too much upon other avocations. And, in 
our Seminaries where a liberal English educa- 
tion is taught, it is surely high time to add this 
interesting and useful study. 

Under the influence of this impression, and 
also with a view to furnish a text book for such 
as wish to attend popular lectures on Chemis- 
try, the following little work has been revised : 
The corrections and additions which have 



4 ADVERTISEMENT. 

been made, are principally such, as could not 
with propriety be dispensed with. 

Although the general plan of the work, and 
the brevity studied by the author throughout 
the compilation, rendered it a most valuable 
elementary book, yet opinions had been oc- 
casionally advanced which were opposed to ex- 
periment. In the production of hydrogen gas 
by a union of iron with water and sulphuric 
acid, the author differs from late writers on 
that subject, by asserting that the acid as well 
as the water is decomposed — In the formation 
of writing ink, he says, the green sulphate, in- 
stead of the red, unites to the gallic acid, to 
form a gallate of iron, or common ink — The 
ashes of sea weeds, instead of the saline mat- 
ter extracted from them, he calls kelp : With 
several other errors of a similar kind, which, 
although they were not of great magnitude, 
yet, as they were errors, it was necessary 
they should be corrected. 

From the support which has been lately giv- 



ADVERTISEMENT. 5 

jen to the opinion, that heat is a property of 
matter, by Professor Davy, of the Royal In- 
stitution of Great-Britain, and by Dr. Young, 
late Professor of Natural Philosophy in the 
same Institution, I thought the insertion of that 
theory as well as the more generally received 
one, might not be improper — I have therefore 
added it. 

I have also added a description of Chrome, 
a metal which has been found in combination 
with iron, in great abundance in the neighbour- 
hood of Baltimore ; and which, if it can be se- 
parated by a cheap process from the iron with 
which it is combined, will be found to furnish, 
in its combinations with the metallic oxides*, 
the most beautiful and durable paints. 

In attending a first course of Lectures on 
Chemistry, new terms, however well defined 
by the Lecturer, will be but very imperfectly 
remembered ; and when they are repeated by 
him without explanation, will very probably be 

wholly unintelligible. Thus it frequently hap- 

a 2 



6 ADVERTISEMENT. 

pens, that the loss of a few words, which if 
well understood, wrndd have thrown light up- 
on the subject, and given us a high interest in 
it, by being unintelligible, spoils the lecture, 
and creates dissatisfaction. In order to re* 
move in some measure this inconvenience, I 
have added to the glossary a number of 
wor£s which had been omitted by the author : 
So that if a difficulty should occur, by turning 
to the glossary while the Lecturer is speaking, 
it may immediately be removed. 

B. TUCKER. 

Note. After this little work was prepared for 
press, a new and enlarged edition of the Gram- 
mar of Chemistry was received from London, 
printed the beginning of the present year; 
which has been carefully examined, and such 
extracts added to the present publication as 
were deemed of importance. 

B. T. 



A 
GRAMMAR 

OF 

CHEMISTRY.* 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

1. THE object of chemistry is to ascertain 
the ingredients of which substances are com- 
posed, to examine the nature of those ingredi- 
ents, and the properties resulting from their 
combination or union. 

2. Substance or body denotes any existing 
matter, whether solid or fluid. 

Illustration. A stone is a solid body : water and air 
are fluid bodies. 

3. All substances subjected to chemical in- 
vestigation, are considered either as simple or 
compound. 

4. Simple bodies are those which cannot be 
separated into others more simple ; and com- 
pound bodies are those which are compounded 
or composed of simple bodies. 

* This science, says W. Henry, unfolds sublime views of the beauty and 
harmony of the universe, and developes a plan of vast extent and uninter- 
rupted order only conceivable by perfect wisdom, and executed by unboun- 
ded power. B y withdrawing the mind also from pursuits and amusements 
which excite the imagination, its investigations may tend to the improve- 
ment of our intellectual and moral habits, to strengthen the faculty of pa- 
tient and accurate thinking, and to substitute placid trains of feeling, for 
those which are too apt to be weakened by the contending interest of mail 
m society, or the imperfect government of our own passion?. 



8 GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

Illustration 1. When we set fire to a piece of wood or 
coal, light and heat are emited, and the solid matter 
of the wood is converted into water, a kind of air, and 
several other new products. Hence it is evident that 
wood and coal are compound bodies. 

2. Lead is a simple body, but common red-lead, used 
by painters, is compounded of lead and a certain part of 
the atmospheric air, and these may be separated from 
one another by a proper degree of heat. Thus the air 
will be driven off in the form of gas, or vapour, and the 
lead will remain in its original state. 

5. Man cannot create or annihilate any par- 
ticle of matter; but by the aid of chemistry he 
can render obvious to sense, that which was la- 
tent or hidden. 

Illustration. In the burning of a candle, both light 
and the matter of heat are furnished, but the chemist 
can prove that it is not the candle altogether which 
yields these materials, but, in a great measure, the sur- 
rounding atmosphere, and not the whole of that atmos- 
phere, but one of its constituent portions. All the chan- 
ges presented in the different kingdoms of nature, are 
considerably connected with the great agents, water 
and air, aided by light and warmth, or the energy of the 
matter of heat. 

6. The physical properties of matter are dis- 
tinguished from the chemical. 

Illustration. Thus, lead has divisibility, impenetrabili- 
ty, vis inertia, extension, weight, attraction, &c. not as 
lead, but as matter, for all natural bodies have the 
same characters ; but it is not the property of any body 
in nature, (lead excepted) by a union with another 
simple substance, to produce minium, or red-lead. — 
This, therefore, is an individual property of the lead, 
and all individual properties are chemical, 

7* The liquid by which any solid is dissolv- 
ed, is called the solvent, or menstruum. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 9 

8. Solution is promoted by mechanical divi- 
sion, by heat, and by agitation, 

9. Fire, air, earth, and water, which were 
long' considered as the simple elements, into 
which all other bodies might be resolved, are 
now known to be compounds. 

10. Metals, and other bodies, heretofore 
thought to be compound, are now looked upon 
as simple* 

11. The laws of chemistry are ascertainable 
either by synthesis or analysis. 

12. Analysis, or decomposition, implies the 
separating of compound bodies into their res- 
pective constituents. 

13. Synthesis, implies the chemical re -union 
of such simple bodies as any compound had 
been resolved into, so as again to regenerate 
that compound, with all its former properties. 

Illustration 1. An instance of analysis Is seen when 
an alkali is added to muriate of lime, for the lime falls 
to the bottom of the vessel. 

2. Synthesis is instanced on the disappearance of the 
lime, when added to a given portion of the muriatic 
acid. 

3. Analysis is of two kinds, simple or destructive.— 
The instance given refers to simple analysis alone ; for 
when the muriatic acid is disengaged from the alkali by 
the sulphuric, the same quantity of lime at first obtained 

^can be re-combined with it, and thus the original com- 
pound muriate of lime regenerated. But if a flower 
were treated chemically, we should obtain from its an- 
alysis various different substances, but we should in vain 
endeavour to re-produce by any new combination of 
these products, the primitive fragrance of the flower- 
Hence destructive analysis. 



10 GENERAL PRINCIPLES^ 

14. By the agency of heat and mixture, or 
in other words, by the action of the particles of 
one body, upon those of another, we are able to 
analyse or decompose the different substances 
which nature presents to our view. 

1 5. The matter of heat is the most powerful 
chemical agent with which we are acquainted. 
It enters into the pores of bodies, and by its ex- 
panding or repulsive powers, produces their de- 
composition. 

16. Chemical mixture in general, is that re- 
ciprocal attraction or affinity which exists be- 
tween the particles of one body, and those of 
another. 

1 7. A mere mechanical mixture is different 
from a chemical solution. Mixtures are al- 
ways turbid or opaque. Solutions are trans- 
parent. 

Illustration 1. A stone or an earth may be reduced to 
a powder, and mixed with water, but the solid particles 
will gradually sink to the bottom. This is a mixture. 

2. When a lump of sugar is put into a glass of water, 
it is said to be dissolved, the water and sugar being 
blended together by a mutual attraction. This is a so- 
lution. 

18. In chemical combination, the peculiar 
characters of the substances combined disap- 
pear. 

Illustration 1. Lime is a concrete body ; when presented 
to certain acids, as the nitric, it disappears ; had it been 
only mechanically mixed with the acid, it would have 
precipitated. The necessity of distinguishing between 
mechanical mixture, and chemical union, cannot be too 
early impressed. 

2. Zinc, in granules, sinks in water, but when pre- 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 11 

s^nted to an acid, it loses its metallic character ; in 
short, it is linked to the acid chemically, forming a new 
compound, of which water is the solvent. 

19. No two substances that can chemically 
combine, do so in every proportion, though bo- 
dies may be mechanically mixed in all propor- 
tions. 

20. There is a certain limited quantity which 
fluids will dissolve or take up by the power of 
attraction ; whatever part of the solid body ex- 
ceeds this limit, will fall to the bottom undis- 
solved. 

21. This point or limit is called the point of 
saturation* 

Illustration 1. If we gradually drop salt into a glass 
of water, saturation is said to have taken place, when 
the salt begins to fall to the bottom, instead of being 
dissolved in the liquid. If the solution be drained off 
from these particles of salt, it is then called a saturated 
solution. 

2. There is also a point or limit in certain cases, be- 
yond that of saturation. It is termed supersaturation, 
of which we have an instance in steel and plumbago : 
both of these are compounds of iron and carbon. Black- 
lead, which contains not an atom of lead, is iron satura- 
ted in the second degree with carbon. Steel, on the 
other hand, is iron united to the first point of saturation 
with the same principle, carbon. 

22. The doctrine of chemical affinities, de* 
pends upon that peculiar power which urges 
them to approach each other, and which is ter- 
med chemical attraction. 

Illustration 1. This is to be distinguished from the 
attraction of cohesion, of aggregation, of crystallization, 
of magnetism, of electricity* of capillarity, &c. 



12 OF SIMPLE SUBSTANCES. 

2. A stone, unsupported in the air, falls to the ground 
by the attraction of gravitation. When amber or seal- 
ing-wax are rubbed, they attract feathers, or other 
light bodies. This is electric attraction. The needle 
is determined to the north by the energy of mag?ietic 
attraction. A. bar of steel has infinitely more tenacity 
than a rope of sand — the one eminently possessing, 
while the other is totally deficient in the attraction of 
cohesion. 

3. Hardness, softness, brittleness, ductiiity, and mal- 
leability, all depend upon different modifications of this 
attraction of cohesion. 

23. By chemical attraction is meant that 
tendency by which bodies of a different nature 
unite, and form compounds possessed of pro- 
perties different from those of their constituent 
parts. 

Illustration. Thus magnesia combines with sulphuric 
acid, and forms Epsom salt, the constituents of which 
are neither of them bitter, though the resulting com» 
pound be so in an eminent degree. 

OF SIMPLE SUBSTANCES. 

24. Simple substances are such bodies as the 
powers of chemistry have hitherto been unable 
to decompose. 

Observation. The number of simple substances is con- 
stantly changing. Experiment has discovered, that 
several held as such, are composed of two or more of 
the rest. 

25. Among the simple bodies are, 
Caloric, or the matter of heat, 
Oxygen, or the acidifying principle, 
Nitrogen, or the basis of the nitric acid. 



OF CALORIC. 13 

Hydrogen, or the basis of water, 
Phosphorus, 
Sulphur, 

Carbon or Diamond, 
Metals. 

The akalies, and earths, cannot proper* 
ly be reckoned as simple bodies. 



OF CALORIC. 

26. There are two opinions concerning the 
nature of caloric, which have long divided phi- 
losophers, andVhich are still prevalent. The 
first, that it is a distinct, but very subtile 
fluid which pervades the pores of all bodies. 

27. The second, that caloric consists in a 
minute vibratory motion of the particles of bo- 
dies ; and that this motion is communicated 
through an apparent vacuum by the undula- 
tions of an elastic medium, which is diffused 
through the pores of different ponderable sub- 
stances, and which is also concerned in the phe- 
nomena of light. 

28* Light, according to the first of these 
opinions, is considered as a distinct substance, 
consisting of exceedingly small particles, which 
are projected with inconceivable velocity from 
luminous bodies. 

29. According to the second opinion, light 
arises from the vibrations propagated through 
an elastic medium, which is diffused through 



14 OF CALORIC. 

all space, and in which luminous bodies have 
the power of exciting these vibrations, in the 
same manner that sonorous ones produce vi- 
bratory motions in the air. 

30. The difference between light and heat, 
according to the second opinion, arises from 
the undulations constituting heat, being larger 
and stronger than those of light. The first of 
these opinions with respect to light and heat is 
the most general. 

31. Animal heat is that principle or power 
by which the body is kept warm, and by which 
living beings are enabled to communicate 
warmth to surrounding bodies. 

32. Caloric expands bodies in all directions. 

33. Caloric, in the act of passing from one 
body to another, becomes perceptible to the 
senses. 

34. Caloric is very conspicuously diffused 
through all the bodies of nature. 

Illustration 1. Though it be the cause of liquidity and 
the gaseous state, still bodies in a concrete form con- 
tain much of this matter uncombined. This is known 
by such processes as lower the temperature of different 
bodies. So long 1 as any substance can be cooled, so 
long it has the power of parting with heat, and we have 
yet to learn the point at which we could assert that it 
•lias parted with all it contains. 

2. When caloric is extracted from steam, it becomes 
water, and when from water caloric is abstracted, ice 
is produced. 

3. Bodies which exhibit properties arising from in- 
crease or diminution of caloric, are said to be of a cer- 
tain temperature. And as it is probable that no sub- 
stance can have its temperature reduced to 0, in th^ 



OF CALORIC. 15 

scale of heat, so it must follow that the particles of so- 
lid bodies are never in actual contact. 

Example. Thermometers and pyrometers are instru- 
ments for measuring" the relative degrees of heat by the 
expansion of liquids or solids. The degrees of expan- 
sion are determined by reference to a suitable scale. 

35. As heat is necessary to the fusion of ice, 
or any other solid body, the same substance is 
evolved during the act of congelation* Warmth 
is therefore presented to surrounding bodies 
during the natural operation of freezing. 

36. The same quantity of caloric which keeps 
some substances in an aeriform state, presents 
liquidity and solidity only, in others* 

37. Caloric cannot be accumulated in any 
body beyond a certain extent. 

38. The tendency which heat has to flow 
from solids into surrounding bodies, when the 
former are raised to a certain temperature is 
well known. 

Illustration. A ball of iron, (being made red-hot) 
soon loses its temperature, and becomes of the same 
degree of heat as the surrounding bodies. 

39. Caloric has been enumerated by some 
under the head of imponderable substances, be- 
cause the nicest experiments have not proved 
it to be possessed of weight, 

40. Caloric is conducted through different 
bodies with more or less facility. 

Illustration 1. When rods of iron, porcelain, and 
wood of equal lengths and diameter, are exposed to the 
fire, the ends at a distance will convey the heat very 
differently ; the iron will become very hot, whilst the 
porcelain and wood will be scarcely heated at all.- 



16 OT CALORIC. 

2. A purse containing money, when held to the fire* 
scarcely becomes warm, while the money becomes so 
hot as not to be touched. Hence the facility with which 
bodies are heated or cooled, is proportioned to their 
conducting power. 

3. Ice, wrapped in wool, fleecy-hosiery, down, or fine 
dry charcoal powder, takes a very considerable time 
before it thaws in an atmosphere of considerably higher 
temperature. 

• 4, Expansion and contraction is a serious inconve- 
nience on several occasions. In instruments for measur- 
ing time, it is particularly so. Musical instruments 
should not have strings of different metals, for by any 
change of temperature in the atmosphere, they are apt 
to go out of tune. 

5. Brittle bodies, such as glass, are but bad conduc- 
tors of heat ; hence, the surface to which heat is sud- 
denly applied by inordinate expansion, generally produ- 
ces fracture. It is on this account that capsules, Flor- 
ence flasks, and retorts of glass, to be used over lamps, 
or at the naked fire, should be as thin as possible, pro- 
vided they be of sufficient strength to bear their con- 
tents. 

41. Fluids convey or conduct heat more ra- 
pidly than solids. ~ 

Illustration. Fluids necessarily contain more latent 
heat than solids, but as the capacity of bodies for calo- 
ric is increased, their conducting power seems to be 
diminished, as in the case of liquids and gases, which 
appear to be such bad conductors of heat, that Rum- 
ford supposed this power was only communicated by in- 
terchange of heated particles. 

Experiment 1. Hot water, on the surface of cold 
water, in a tube, remains long nearly at the same tem- 
perature, whereas, when disposed at the bottom, the 
reverse occurs. 

2. When a vessel of cold water is placed over a fire, 
the heat expands, and therefore renders the water of 
less specific gravity at the bottom of the vessel* which 



OF CALORIC. 17 

portion of water ascends to the top, while another of e- 
qual volume being colder, and consequently heavier, 
bulk for bulk, falls to the bottom, and in this way there 
is a constant circulation from the under to the upper 
part of the vessel. 

3. Ice is readily melted when placed at the surface of 
a vessel of hot water, but it requires at the bottom eigh- 
ty times the length of time to fuse it, showing with 
what difficulty heat is communicated downwards, or by 
radiation in liquids. 

42. Water swells upon being frozen, from 
two causes : First, from the extrication of the 
portion of air which it holds in solution, and 
which freezing disengages. This air forms 
those numerous cavities that are found in ice. 
Second, from the frozen particles of water as- 
suming a different arrangement, and therefore 
requiring more room. 

Elucidation. From this cause it is, that in severe frosts 
the aqueous fluids of plants, on sudden concretion, split 
even the knotted oak, with incalculable force, accompa- 
nied by powerful explosion. 

Experiment 1. When water is poured over a block of 
Irish slate, set on edge, (over night) it is found to be 
readily split into layers by the freezing of the water 
within its different leaves. 

2. A bottle filled with water, and corked on freezing, 
never fails to be broken. 

43* Deep lakes of water do not freeze in 
winter. 

Illustration. This is owing to the circumstance of col- 
der air being constantly presented at the surface of the 
lake which causes a portion of the water to lose its tem- 
perature, and thus becoming heavier, falls gradually to 
the bottom, while the warmer water below ascends, for- 
ming a new surface in its place. Hence the beautiful 
commercebetween theocean and the atmosphere, the for- 



18 OF CALORIC. 

mer of which containing* against winter, the season of 
need, such hoards of warmth as to supply the incumbent 
atmosphere, which again repays in warmer seasons the 
loan. Hence the more equable temperature of insular 
situations, when compared with places of the same lati- 
tude, far from the sea. 

44. The chemical effects of caloric in melt- 
ing or fusing metals, earths, and other solid 
bodies are equally striking with its effects in 
expanding or heating fluids. 

45. Expansion differs from fluidity. 

Illustration. For no substance can be expanded be" 
yond a certain limit, during which time its specific gra- 
vity diminishes, or a given volume weighs less, and its 
temperature increases, as may be distinguished by the 
sense of feeling. 

Experiment. Expose ice and ice-cold water, to the 
same degree of heat, the ice will not become hotter, 
but the water will. When, however, the ice is entirely 
fused, it will increase in its temperature, as the ice-cold 
water does. 

46. In bodies which expand, there is a regu- 
lar increase and contraction of bulk, according 
to the degree of heat. 

47. All solids, (which are not decomposed 
by caloric alone) fuse at a determinate point, 
which is termed their melting point. No two 
substances fuse at the same temperature. 

Illustration. Tallow melts in the hand, but the high- 
est degrees of heat, capable of being excited in our 
furnaces, do not, (properly speaking) liquify platina. It 
is, however, fusible. 

48. It requires a certain temperature to main- 
tain all bodies liquid. Many are solid at that 
of the atmosphere. 



OF CALORIC. 19 

Illustration. These solids, when fused by access of 
heat in furnaces or otherwise, gradually concrete on be- 
ing exposed anew to the ordinary temperature. 

49. Some bodies such as earths, stones, &c. 
concrete or melt into masses like glass. This 
operation is called vitrification. But the redu- 
cing metals from a solid to a fluid, by the ap- 
plication of heat, is termed fusion* 

50. Another important effect produced by- 
caloric, is the formation of vapour or steam. 

51. By vapour is meant a transparent fluid 
like air, of great elasticity, and capable of be- 
ing greatly increased in bulk by additions of 
heat. 

Illustration 1. This effect of the immense force of va- 
pour is exemplified by the small pieces of glass called 
candle balls, sold in the toy-shops. These glass balls 
when fixed near the flame of a lighted candle, burst 
with a loud noise from the expansion into vapour of the 
drop of water they contain. 

2- Great danger attends the melting of metals, or 
boiling of oils, in consequence of the expansive power of 
vapour; for, if by any accident, % small quantity of water 
falls into the vessel containing tiie hot fluid, it will be 
converted into vapour with such rapidity, as to scatter 
the fluid, metal, or boiling oil, in all directions, with an 
explosion resembling that of gunpowder. 

52. The point at which a fluid is converted 
into vapour, depends upon a certain degree of 
heat called the boiling point. The boiling 
point of water has been fixed at 212° of 
Fahrenheit's thermometer, and the freezing 
point at 32°. 

53. If water can be prevented from going off 



20 OF CALORIC. 

in steam, as it may by means of a particular 
contrivance, it will acquire a degree of heat e- 
qual to that of metals when red hot. 

Illustration* The "machine used for this purpose is 
called Papin's digester, and is a copper vessel half filled 
with water, the head of which is closely screwed down. 
When the water is so hot as to send off vapour, its es- 
cape is prevented by means of a weight and lever across 
the lid, which confine it in proportion to the increased 
pressure of the vapour. Lead and tin have been melted 
in this machine, and bones have been totally dissolved, 
leaving nothing but earth or ashes. 

54. Water does not become hotter by being 
boiled long in the common way ; after being 
heated to the boiling point, the heat gradually 
converts a portion of the water into vapour, and 
the additional heat applied to the water, goes 
off with the vapour. 

55. This last property in steam or vapour 
of retaining a great quantity of heat or caloric, 
has suggested the idea of warming houses by 
means of steam instead of coals or other fuel. 

Illustration. There are several large manufactories, 
besides private houses, both in England and Scotland, 
warmed in this manner. In the lower part of the build- 
ing, or in the kitchen, a furnace is erected, to which a 
large boiler or copper is fixed ; from this an iron pipe 
or tube ascends, and is made to pass through every a- 
partment of the building until it reaches the roof. The 
heated air or steam passing through these pipes, diffu- 
ses an equable degree of heat throughout the whole of 
the building and the saving, in point of fuel, is found to 
be immense. 



OP CALORIC. 21 

56. Heat is also the agent employed in the 
operations of evaporation, distillation, and sub- 
limation. 

Example. 1. If we take a mass of clay, water, and 
quick-silver, and expose it to heat, the water will first 
rise in vapour,andbe entirely expelled before the quick- 
silver begins to rise, and this vapour may be condensed 
into pure water. By increasing the heat, the quick-sil- 
ver will rise also, and leave the clay by itself. This 
process is called evaporation, that is, when we wish to 
obtain a fixed and solid substance, and are not anxious 
about the parts which fly off or are evaporated. 

2. When we w T ish to obtain the volatile parts con- 
densed into a fluid, the process is called distillation, 

3. When the vapours given off from a body by means 
of heat condense into a solid form, the process is called 
sublimation, and the produce a sublimate. 

Experiment. An instance of which is beheld when 
camphor is exposed to heat over a lamp in a crucible, 
when a cold body, as a plate of copper or iron is pre- 
sented, it condenses the vapours, and re-exhibits the in- 
visible odorous fluid again, in a concrete, and often in 
a chrystalline form. 

57. Heat operates in a different manner up- 
on animal and vegetable substances from what 
it does on minerals. 

Example. If a piece of flesh be exposed to heat, it is 
not like iron, expanded, but on the contrary, is contrac- 
ted, from the moist or humid parts flying off. 

58. Combustion, to which air is an indispen- 
sible condition, is the most important source of 
caloric. Such bodies as are capable of inducing 
this effect, are named combustible bodies. 

59. Bodies which are not combustible, are 
not altered by heat in a permanent manner, nor 



22 or CALORrc. 

is the caloric which they receive at all increas- 
ed. 

60. Combustible bodies, on the contrary, by 
the decomposition of oxygen gas become sour- 
ces of light and heat. Their capacity of pro- 
ducing light and heat is however gradually ex- 
hausted, and what remains after combustion, 
appears to be a different substance, and no lon- 
ger combustible. 

61. Incombustible bodies readily receive 
caloric from surrounding bodies of any kind, 
of a higher temperature, and as readily part 
with it again when the temperature is dimi- 
nished. 

Observation. This does not apply to organic matter, 
to animal or vegetable substances, after death, nor even 
during* life, except within a very limited range. When 
any part of the body is burnt, destructive analysis takes 
place, and the vital principle is banished from the part. 

Experiment 1. When a stone made red hot is plung- 
ed into water, the warmth it loses is not extinguished, 
for it will be found in proportion to its quantity, to have 
elevated the temperature of the liquid. 

2. Bodies of the same temperature do not communi- 
cate or imbibe heat with the same facility. Thus quick- 
silver appears colder than water, water than oil, 
lead than marble, marble than wood, though all are, in 
reality, of the same temperature. 

Observation. In these instances, it is plain that the 
hand more readily parts with its heat to some of these 
bodies than to others, leaving a lesser or greater im- 
pression of cold, as more or less heat is abstracted in 
equal spaces of time. 



OF OXYGEN. 



OF OXYGEN. 



62. Oxygen is never found in an uncombined 
state. It approaches nearest to purity in the 
state of a vapour or oxygen gas. 

63. Oxygen combines with all the metals, 
depriving them of their metallic lustre as well 
as cohesion, and giving them an earthy or rus- 
ty appearance. This combination which was 
formerly known by the name of calx, is now 
termed an oxide. 

64. Some of the metals become oxidized or 
are rusted by mere exposure to the damp and 
moisture of the common air. 

Example. The rust which iron so readily contracts, 
is an oxide of the metal produced by its attracting the 
oxygen from air or water. 

65. All the metals, at suitable temperatures, 
become oxidized in contact with atmospheric 
air ; even gold and silver formerly supposed 
incapable of corrosion, may, like the other me- 
tals, lose their metallic splendour and become 
oxides. 

66. Ail oxides are heavier than the quantity 
of the metal which produced them, in propor- 
tion to the quantity of oxygen with which they 
are combined. 

67. The mode of procuring oxygen gas is 
readily effected by decomposing many of the 
substances which contains its base. Red-lead* 



24 OF OXYGEN. 

which is the red oxide or rust of lead, or the 
black ore of manganese, are oxides of these 
two metals. Nothing is more easy than to ob- 
tian oxygen gas from either of these two sub- 
stances. The process follows : 

Example. Procure a tub or trough A, (plate fig 1 . 1.) 
with a shelf KKK, on which BGF, are glass jars or re- 
ceivers, which, as well as the tub, are filled with water: 
C is a glass retort, into which the manganese or red lead 
and a small quantity of sulphuric acid are to be insert- 
ed. Apply the heat of a lamp to the bottom of the re- 
tort, and in a few minutes the oxygen will rise in bub- 
bles and fill the receiver, from which it will force down 
the water. 

68. Oxygen gas forms about twenty-two parts 
in the hundred of the air we breathe, the rest 
being nitrogen or azotic gas, except one per 
cent, of carbonic acid gas. 

69. Combustion requires for its maintenance 
the presence of oxygen gas. The quantity of 
caloric liberated during combustion, depends 
entirely upon the quantity of oxygen gas com- 
bined in a given space of time, with the com- 
bustible body. 

Illustration. In the lamp of Argand, with a circular 
wick, the Jlame is derived from the ignition of the vapour 
of the oil, heated to a sufficient extent for that purpose. 
That air is necessary to the perfect combustion of this 
vapour, may be known by stopping the avenue to the in- 
terior part of the wick, by imersion of the lower part of 
the lamp in water when considerable smoke will instant- 
ly appear, and the light be proportion ably dimmed. 

70. Oxygen gas has a strong tendency to 
unite with simple combustibles. It is an essen- 



OF NITROGEN. 25 

tial consistutent of the acids : with sulphur it 
forms the sulphuric, with carbon the carbonic, 
with phosphorus the phosphoric, and so on, 

71. With hydrogen it forms water in the 
proportion of eighty-five oxygen, and fifteen 
hydrogen. It is singular that water, though per- 
fectly insipid, contains more of the acidifying 
principle oxygen, than any of the acids to the 
constitution of which it is essential. 

Example. Acid, from acetum, vinegar, is yielded du- 
ring fermentation. Thus, when wine, beer, or other 
similar fluids are exposed at a moderate temperature 
to the atmosphere, they absorb oxygen from it, and 
change to this acid. 

72. Oxygen does not impart the acid cha- 
racter to all substances. Such as it does im- 
part this character to, are called acidifiable 
bases. 

73. The nomenclature of the acids varies ac- 
cording as the acidifiable base is saturated in 
the first or second degree with oxygen, and the 
compounds are distinguished by their termina- 
tions in ic or ous. 

Illustration. Sulphurous & sulphuric acids, phosphorus, 
phosphoric acids, &c. In these instances, the sulphur or 
the phosphorus combine with two different portions of 
oxygen, and yield in consequence acids similar to their 
base, but different as to their chemical properties. 

OF NITROGEN, or AZOT. 

74. This is the basis of the nitric acid ; it 
exhibits itself in its simplest state as a gas. 



26 OF NITROGEN. 

Though the term azot be here set down as sy~ 
nonimous with nitrogen, yet it is rejected as 
equivocal; for every gas, which, when respired 
alone does not maintain life, may be called a- 
zotic. It combines with oxygen, forming two 
oxides and an acid. 

75. In the state of gas it forms about seven- 
ty-eight parts in the hundred of atmospheric air 
(including one per cent, of carbonic acid gas) 
and is that part of the common air which sup- 
ports neither flame nor animal life. 

76. It may be readily obtained from atmos- 
pheric air, by removing the oxygenous portion. 

Example 1. If a portion of iron filings and sulphur, 
moistened with water, be put into a flask filled with 
common air, the oxygen will be absorbed in a day or 
two by the metal and the sulphur, while the nitrogen 
gas will remain. 

2. The same effect will be produced by phosphorus 
alone, inclosed in a similar vessel, along with common 
air. The phosphorus will be oxidized or converted in- 
to phosphoric acid, and the nitrogen gas will remain be- 
hind. 

77. Nitrogen gas is considerably lighter than 
common air, and consequently much lighter 
than oxygen gas. 

78. As nitrogen gas is equally privative of 
life, and the maintenance of flame, so, when it 
is possible to exclude the external atmosphere, 
damage by fire might often be prevented. It 
was the mephitic air of the ancients. One hun- 
dred cubic inches of it weigh 30| grains, while 
one hundred cubic inches of oxygen gas weigh 
34§ grains* It does not prevent vegetation ; it 



OF NITROGEN. 27 

is evolved from animal and vegetable bodies ; 
with oxygen gas, exposed to the electric spark, 
it forms the nitric acid. 

79. Nitrogen unites with oxygen in two 
states, in the mixture of which the atmospheric 
air is composed, and in the chemical combina- 
tion of the nitric acid. 

80. Nitrous acid was supposed to be nitro- 
gen, oxigenated in a less degree than the nitric 
acidy but it is well ascertained now, that it is no 
more than mere nitric acid, holding nitrous 
gas in solution. 

Observation. It varies singularly in its colour, accord- 
ing to the quantity of nitrous gas held in solution. 

81. Nitrogen gas extinguishes flame, which 
can alone be maintained by o::ygen gas, or by 
gases which contain it. 

82. There are two combinations only of ni- 
trogen and oxygen in a gaseous state ; nitrous 
oxide and nitrous gas. 

83. Nitrous acid is the aquafortis of jcom- 
merce. 

84. Nitrous gas is formed of fifty-seven per 
cent, of oxygen, and forty-three of nitrogen. 
\\ hen in contact with common air, it greedily 
absorbs its oxygen, visible vapours and an acid 
taste are produced. 



28 



OF HYDROGEN. 

85. Hydrogen is one of the constituents of 
water ; fifteen parts of hydrogen, and eighty- 
five cf oxygen form this fluid. 

Example. If fifteen pints of hydrogen gas be burnt in 
a large open globe, at a small jet, they form one hun- 
dred parts of water. 

86. The simplest form in which hydrogen is 
found, is in a state of combination with caloric, 
In the form of hydrogen gas. 

Observation. The properties of hydrogen are there- 
fore formed from an attention to the habitudes of hy- 
drogen gas. 

87. By almost all the processes in which 
water is decomposed, hydrogen is furnished, 
for, in most of these, the decomposing agent 
combines with the oxygenous portion. 

Observation. It is singular that oxygen should be con- 
tained in a greater proportion in water than in any o- 
ther substance, and yet exhibit none of the acid qualities 
for which it is so remarkable when fixed in other bodies. 

Example 1. If water be gradually dropped through a 
gun -barrel, or iron tube, heated to redness in the middle, 
such water will be decomposed, the oxygen combines 
with the iron, converting it to its state of oxide, while 
the hydrogen passes off considerably pure from the op- 
posite end in a gaseous form. 

2. When red hot iron is plunged into water, a portion 
of this is decomposed, and hydrogen is yielded, known 
by its very peculiar smell and combustibility in atmos- 
pheric air, when a taper is presented. 



OF HYDROGEN. 29 

88. Hydrogen gas is twelve times lighter 
than common air, hence it has been applied to 
the filling of balloons. The term is synoni- 
mous with inflammable air, but the last name 
is incorrect, inasmuch as that this gas extin- 
guishes a taper plunged into it. 

Illustration. It only kindles at the point when the ac- 
cession of the atmosphere is permitted. It burns silent- 
ly at the point of contact, but with loud explosion when 
blended with atmospheric air in certain proportions, and 
still louder when mixed with pure oxygen gas, in the 
proportion of two parts of the former, to one of the lat- 
ter, by measure. 

89. This gas is noxious to animals, but its 
comparative levity and immiscibility with the 
atmosphere, carries it rapidly beyond the point, 
whence any detriment would, generally speak- 
ing, arise from it. 

Observation- It is thought, to form the region of lumi-> 
nous vapours in the upper part cf the atmosphere. 

Experiment. To procure hydrogen gas, provide a vial 
with a cork stopper; through which pass a glass tube or 
piece of tobacco pipe. Into this vial half filled with 
water, put a f(tw small iron nails, to which add of 
sulphuric acid a quantity equal to one third of the water. 
But. as there will be a very considerable degree of heat 
excited, the acid must be cautiously added and in 
small quantities at a time. Replace the cork, and the 
hydrogen gas will be liberated through the tube. To * 
which, after the atmospheric air in the vial is driven off, 
apply the flame of a candle, and the gas will Immediate- 
ly take fire and burn with a clear flame until the hydro- 
gen in the vial is exhausted — But care must be taken 
not to apply .the candle until the atmospheric air in the 
phial is driven off, or the consequence will be explosion. 

Illustration. In this experiment a decomposition of the 
water takes place ; its oxygen unites to the iron and 
c" 2 



30 OF HYDROGEN. 

forms an oxide of iron, which combines with the acid 
and forms a sulphate, while the hydrogen, the other 
constituent part of the water is driven off in the form 
of water. 

90, Hydrogen forms one of the constituents 
of pit-coal, whence it is capable of being disen- 
gaged, combined with carbon in the form of 
carbu retted hydrogen gas. 

Observation. This gas burns with a much less dim 
light than that of common hydrogen ; indeed it is a light 
more grateful to the eye than any other. It has been 
commodiously adapted to the lighting of streets and 
houses. 

Example 1. If a bladder, free from air, be moistened 
and compressed, having previously adapted a perfora- 
ted cork to a tobacco-pipe stopper, this cork being in- 
serted in the neck of the phial containing the materials 
for furnishing hydrogen, the bladder becomes readily in- 
flated by that gas. 

2. Adapt the end of a common tobacco-pipe to the 
bladder thus filled with hydrogen gas, and dip the bowl 
of the pipe in soapsuds, prepared as if for blowing up 
soap-bubbles. Squeeze out small portions of gas from 
the bladder into these soapsuds, and the bubbles formed 
will ascend into the air with very great rapidity, until 
they are out of sight. 

3. If a lighted'taper or candle is applied to the bub- 
bles as they ascend from the bowl of a tobacco-pipe, 
they will explode or burst with a loud noise. 

Illustration. By the application of the flame of the candle 
in this experiment, the hydrogen in the soap bubbles is 
burnt or decomposed, and forms water by uniting with 
the oxygen of the atmosphere. The noise made by the 
explosion, is occasioned by the atmospheric air sudden- 
ly rushing in, or collapsing upon the empty space left 
by the bursting or exploding of the gas bubble. 

4. In every inflammation, according to the new theory, 
there is a union between the base of oxygen gas, and 



OF HYDROGEN, 31 

the combustible body. The investigation of this union 
has given birth to the most interesting discovery of mo- 
dern times, viz. the formation of water. 

5. This formation of water may be exhibited by hold- 
ing a cold tumbler over the flame of hydrogen gas, as it 
proceeds through a small tube. 

6. In order to produce an imitation of the gas lights? 
pound a small quantity of coal into powder, and put it 
into the bowl of a tobacco-pipe. Cover the coal closely 
over with clay, and put the bowl of the pipe into the 
fire. In a few minutes a stream of hydrogen gas will 
issue from the end of the tobacco-pipe, which may be 
set fire to with a candle, or piece of lighted paper, in the 
usual way. 

7. In the production of gas lights on a larger scale, 
the coal is put into an iron cauldron, and heat applied 
to it, when the gas ascends, and is distributed by means 
of metal pipes, into various apartments of a house, or 
through the streets of a town. 

91. In the experiments upon the combustion 
of hydrogen gas, a dangerous explosion takes 
place, if care be not taken to keep the gas en- 
tirely free from any mixture of common air. 

Experiment 1. Into a strong jar, introduce one part 
of hydrogen gas and two parts of common air, the com- 
bustion is not instantaneous, as in the former experi- 
ments, but with a sudden explosion. 

2. Into the same vessel introduce two parts hydrogen 
gas, and one of oxygen gas. The explosion of these is 
still more violent. As vessels are apt to break in these 
experiments, it is advisable to wrap a towel round the 
glass in which the explosion is to be made. 

92. Carburetted hydrogen gas is that which 
is produced from the distillation of coal, as 
already described when speaking of the gas 
lights. 



32 OF HYDROGEN. 

93. Hydrogen gas, besides being combined 
with water, may also be combined with sul- 
phur, phosphorus, and carbon. It is then cal- 
led sulphuretted hydrogen, phosphuretted hy- 
drogen, and carburetted hydrogen. 

Experiment 1. The combination of phosphorus and 
hydrogen gas possesses the property of taking fire 
when exposed to the air of the atmosphere, but more 
beautifully when oxygen gas is used. The following is 
the method of making this gas. 

2. Take two ounces of slacked lime, one dram of 
phosphorus, and half an ounce of water ; put them into 
a small retort, and apply heat; the bubbles burst and 
inflame as soon as they reach the top of the water, and 
beautiful undulating wreaths of smoke dance through 
the air, expanding as they ascend, and exhibiting one 
of the most interesting experiments in chemistry. 

A solution of pure potash will enable us to make this 
experiment with more ease. Introduce into a retort a 
dilute solution of caustic potash, with a piece of phos- 
phorus ; these, when heated to boiling, exhibit the 
appearance described. 

3. Beautiful flashes of light are produced when bub- 
bles of phosphuretted hydrogen gas are received in jars 
of oxygen gas as soon as they reach the oxygen gas. 
These phenomena arise from the very minute division 
of the phosphorus in the hydrogenous gas, by which it 
is disposed to unite with oxygen, wherever it is presen- 
ted to it. 

Illustration. The decomposition of water by phospho- 
rus, when lime or alkali is present, is much more rapid 
than when water and phosphorus alone are employed, 
because it is aided by the disposition there is in the 
earth or alkali, to unite with the acid to be produced by 
the decomposition of the water. 

Observation. Phosphuretted hydrogen retains its qua- 
lities, if kept over mercury, but not if kept over water. 
In the latter case, after a short time, hydrogen only re- 
mains. 



OF PHOSPHORUS, 33 

94. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas forms part 
of the fetid effluvia which rises from house- 
drains, and is produced by the decomposition 
of animal and vegetable substances, containing 
sulphur and hydrogen. 

Observation. It is this species of air which gives to 
certain mineral waters, such as those of Harrowgate, 
their medicinial qualities. 

95. The fire-works formed by hydrogen gas 
may be produced of different colours, accord- 
ing as the substances with which the hydrogen 
combines, differ in their degrees of purity. 

Illustration. Persons who are in the habit of exhibit- 
ing fire- works with inflammable air, obtain it by differ., 
ent processes, each of which presents some variety or 
modification of colour, from the substances accidentally 
dissolved in it. When obtained from jether, it exhibits a 
dense blue flame, in the act of combustion. Pure hy« 
drogen gas is said to be destitute of smell. 

OF PHOSPHORUS. 



96. Phosphorus may be obtained by decom- 
posing the bones of animals ; it is a yellowish, 
transparent substance, like beeswax, and fuses 
in water slightly heated. 

Experiment. If a bit of phosphorous, the size of a mil- 
let-seed, be put upon the outside of a Florence flask, 
when hot water is put into the flask, the phosphorus on 
the outside spontaneously kindles. 

Observation. A very slow combustion of phosphorus 
continually goes on, very perceptible in the dark. Indeed 
phosphorus derives its name from this quality, 



34 OF PHOSPHORUS. 

Experiment. When moderately heated, phosphorus 
burns rapidly, with a brilliant light, in common air, and, 
as in other combustions the oxygen and inflammable sub- 
stances unite, so, in this, the oxygen and phosphorus 
combine and form an acid. 

2. Dissolve phosphorus in oil or xther, the former 
makes the face and hands shine when rubbed on them ; 
the latter, when poured in small quantities on hot water, 
exhibits a beautiful experiment. 

3 Take the size of a large pin's head of phosphorus, 
and wipe it upon blotting paper, then put it into the mid- 
dle of a piece of dry cotton ; hammer it and it will set it 
on fire. Paper, linen, &c. may be fired in the same man- 
ner. 

4. Put a little phosphorus into a small phial, melt the 
phosphorus, by putting the phial in warm water, and, by 
rolling it about, it adheres to the sides of the phial, then 
cork it closely. When used, if a common match be in- 
troduced, it will take fire instantly (after pressing it into 
the fire -bottle,) when taken out. 

97. If exposed to common air, or oxygen gas 
when gently heated, it melts, takes lire, and 
burns, producing a bright white flame, with in- 
tense heat. 

Observation. Its combination with oxygen gas, furnish- 
es results different from ail other combustibles, viz. phos- 
phoric and phosphorus acids, also an oxide of phospho- 
rus. 

Experiment. Into a retort that will hold about a pint, 
put half a pint of water, and then add the size of a 
pea of phosphorus. Place it over a lamp, and when it 
gets warm, stars of fire, resembling sky-rockets, will be 
seen shooting about the water, in a most beautiful man- 
ner, and adhering to the sides of the retort. If the lamp 
is withdrawn, when the water boils, a curious appear- 
ance, resembling the Aurora Borealis> is seen at the sur- 
face of the water. If the heat is continued, a stream of 
light is seen to issue from the mouth of the retort, which 
again returns into the retort when taken away. 



OF PHOSPHORUS. 35 

98. Phosphorus combines with oxygen at a 
lower temperature than most other substances, 
whence its great attractive power for this prin- 
ciple. 

Example, Even the heat produced by friction is suffi- 
cient. Put a piece of phosphorus into a quill, and write 
with it on the wall of a dark room. The words thus 
written, will appear as if brilliantly illuminated. Care 
must be taken in this experiment to avoid touching the 
phosphorus with the bare fingers, as a burn from this 
substance is accompanied with more pain than any other. 

99. By combustion, phosphorus attracts oxy- 
gen from the atmosphere, and becomes phos- 
phorus acid. 

Experiment. This acid may be made by a spontaneous 
and slow combustion of phosphorus. Arrange sticks of 
phosphorus side by side, in a funnel placed in an empty 
bottle, the phosphorus will attract oxygen and moisture 
from the air, and trickle into the bottle in the state of 
liquid phosphorus acid. A degree of heat is sometimes 
excited, sufficient to inflame the phosphorus : to prevent 
this, let each stick be enclosed in a glass tube, a little 
longer than itself, and be covered with a glass dish, and, 
to afford moisture, let the whole stand in a plate of water. 
The acid produced, will weigh about three times as much 
as the phosphorus employed. 

100. Phosphorus, in an uncombined state 
when taken internally, is poisonous. Animals 
have been killed by merely drinking the water 
in which "some newly made phosphorus had 
been washed. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS. 

1. Mix one part of flowers of sulphur or brimstone, 
with eight parts of phosphorus, and dip a small piece of 



36 OF PHOSPHORUS. 

wood or match into the mixture. Rub the end of this 
match against apiece of cork or wood, and a flame will 
be immediately produced. In this way, the phosphoric 
match bottles, and German boxes are made. 

2. Burn phosphorus in common air, it burns with bril- 
liance, volumes of white smoak arise, condense these in 
a glass tumbler, moistened with water, and show, by- 
rinsing it out with the infusion of litmus, that they are 
acid ; the residuum is of an orange complexion, and is 
phosphorus united with a small portion of oxygen. Ex- 
posure to the air, converts it into phosphoric acid. 

3. This experiment is more brilliant in oxygen gas. Bum 
some upon a dish in a jar containing oxygen gas, the air 
becomes diminished in quantity, and the phosphorus is 
converted to phosphoric acid, as it reddens vegetable 
blues. 

4. Phosphoric acid may also be obtained by decompos- 
ing nitric acid, by means of phosphorus. If small pieces 
be thrown into the strong acid, the decomposition is dan- 
gerous, attended with violent and beautiful flashes of light; 
if the acid be weak the decomposition is more gradual and 
the phosphoric acid is produced in a manner you will, by 
this time, understand. The oxygen and phosphorus unite 
and the azot is set at liberty. 

101. Phosphorus easily combines with sul- 
phur. When the phosphorus exceeds the sul- 
phur, it is called phosphoret of sulphur, and 
when the sulphur predominates, it is called 
sulphuret of phosphorus. 

102. When the phosphoric acid is combined 
with any substance, it is then called a. phos- 
phate. 

103. Phosphate of lime is the state in which 
phosphorus exists in bones, and from which it 
is extracted after they are calcined or burnt* 



37 



OF SULPHUR. 

104. Sulphur or brimstone is found in most 
abundance combined with metals. 

105. It is obtained by roasting or exposing 
metals to heat, when the sulphur flies upwards 
or is sublimed. 

106. Sulphur also exists in vegetables, and 
it is emitted from animal substances, in a state 
of putrefaction, combined with hydrogen. 

107. Sulphur has a strong attraction for ox- 
ygen, and burns upon the application of flame. 

108. When heated sufficiently to take fire, 
it absorbs a certain portion of oxygen from the 
atmosphere, and is converted into sulphurous 
acid. 

109. When burnt in oxygen gas, it absorbs 
a still greater proportion of oxygen, and be- 
comes sulphuric acid. 

110. Sulphur unites with the alkalies, pot- 
ash and soda, forming hard substances of a 
brown colour, commonly called livers of sul- 
phur, but more properly alkaline sulphur ets. 

Experiment 1. Sulphur unites with iron when melted. 
It is used for copying' gems. 

2. Sulphur, when fused and slowly cooled, chrystal- 
lizes. 

3. Sulphur readily combines with the alkalies in the 
humid way, by mere boiling". The muriate of ammonia 
or sal amoniac and lime, boiled with sulphur, in a cap- 
sule, will combine with the lime, and render it soluble 
in water. 



38 OF 'carbon. 

111. In this state, and combined with hv- 
drogen, sulphur enters into the composition of 
thz Harrow gate and other mineral waters, to 
which it gives a smell resembling that of rotten 
eggs. 

Observation. Sulphur is a substance mast useful in the 
arts : it is employed in the bleaching of stuffs, in the pre- 
paration of silks ; it enters into the constituency of gun- 
powder, it Furnishes sulphuric acid by combustion, it is 
often employed in manufactories. One might add, that 
by means of the sulphuric, we separate the nitric and 
muriatic acids from their combinations. Sulphur and 
sulphuric acids are therefore continually employed in che- 
mistry, and very often in pharmacy. 



OF CARSON. 

112. Carbon, in its greatest state of purity, 
exists in the diamond, 

113. It is most frequently to be met with 
combined with a certain dose of oxygen, in 
which case it is called charcoal. 

Example. Expose wood of any kind, robbed of its 
bark, to a red heat, in a close vessel, till vapours cease to 
issue, and you obtain a black opaque and brittle sub- 
stance, easify reduced to powder, without taste and 
smell, called charcoal. If you pound it, and wash aw dy 
the salts it may contain \v\V\ diluted muriatic acid, and 
afterward:- apply repeated affusions or'cokhvater s and then 
<.;;•. ttin a : bred he'atjyoa obtain it sufficiently puse for ge- 
neral iirnoseS; Cominon charcoal, dried in an oven, 
■b^ve great nicety is not required. It is 
£ fixed in the f re, no heat being able 
to volatilize any cos.-:. Liable portion of it. Whennewiy 
made, it will absorb its own buik of air. It also attracts 



OF CARBON. 39 

and strongly retains a small quantity of water. The 
powder of fresh charcoal is strongly disposed to unite 
with the odorus particles of bodies, and the colouring* 
matter of vegetables : it may be therefore employed to 
correct the bad smell of corrupted water, of oiled silk 
bags, of ill-conditioned ulcers, and even cancers, and of 
decayed teeth when used as tooth powder : it is employ- 
ed to deprive vegetable infusions, and other substances, 
used in chemistry of their colour; for the concentra- 
tion of the acetic acid, and give mellowness and matu- 
rity to newly distilled spirits. Its principal use is as a 
fuel, but it ought always to be remembered, that the gas 
which arises from burning charcoal, is the most insidious 
and deleterious that can be inhaled. 

Illustration 1. Meat, which is a little tainted withpu" 
Aridity, on being rubbed over with charcoal, in powder' 
will immediately become sweet. 

2. Throw a quantity of charcoal into water which has 
been long kept, or which has become foul by being in con- 
tact with putrid substances, and the water will become 
perfectly sweet in the course of a few hours. 

Rubbing the teeth with charcoal when finely powdered 
will render them beautifully white, nnd the breath per- 
fectly sweet, when its ofFensiveness has been occasion- 
ed from a scorbutic disposition of the gums. 

114. Charcoal is the coaly matter left by ve- 
getable bodies when heated in close vessels. 

115. Charcoal is a powerful antiseptic, or 
enemy to putridity. 

116. Charcoal is generally procured on bur- 
ning wood, with smothered heat, and extin- 
guishing it when red-hot. 

117. Neither moisture or air 'affect charcoal 
when kept cool, nor call it be destroyed bv heat, 
unless there be a free access to the external 
air. 



40 OF CARBON. 

Illustration 1. The properties of charcoal in resisting 
the action of putridity, have suggested its application to 
casks for containing* water during" long voyages. The in- 
ner surfaces of the caks should be charred or burnt at the 
time of their manufacture. 

2. The points of stakes or piles, intended to be fixed 
into the ground, are also charred in the same manner, and 
their durability is thus greatly increased. 

11 8. Carbon is the principal constituent of 
fossil coal, and also of the woody fibre of ve- 
getables. 

119. Carbon enters into the composition of 
wax, oils, gum, and resins. 

120. Carbon combines with iron in several 
proportions. 

Illustration, Plumbago, or black-lead, of which the 
pencils are made, is a cxjmpound of iron and carbon, in the 
proportion of nine parts carbon, to one of iron. It has 
nothing similar to lead about it, unless its inquinating 
property, by which paper is so readily marked. In this 
combination, we have a metallic alioy, less cohesive than 
almost any other substance, mercurial amalgam excepted, 
whilst the very same ingredients, in different proportions, 
produce another alloy, steel, which has properties diame- 
trically opposite, as it is capable of cutting the hardest 
substances, with few exceptions. Here the iron predo- 
minates. The softest steel is harder than the hardest 
iron. The proces of hardening steel is called tempering 
or attempering, and consists in that novel arrangement of 
the particles which is produced when steel while hot is 
plunged into cold liquids, as water. The colder the li- 
quid, or the more sudden the operation of cooling, the 
harder will the steel be. Case hardening is the superfi- 
cial conversion of the surface of iron into steel, by heat- 
ing it in the contact with animal carbon in close vessels. 
Bar-iron is converted into steel in the sam. way, only 
that powdered charcoal is the substance in which it is 
imbedded* 



OF CARBON- 41. 

121. Carbon is the basis of the carbonic 
acid. 

Illustration. When a piece of common charcoal is 
burnt, this acid is formed : it exists in the form of a gas, 
termed by the elder chemists fixed air, it is highly dele- 
terious, and gradually privative of life, when breathed, 
even mixed with atmospheric air. It is similar to the gas 
yielded daring fermentation, and is resident on the sur- 
face of vats of fermentating liquors. 

122. Carbonic acid has a great tendency to 
combination. With earths, alkalies, and metals, 
it forms carbonates* 

Illustration. It is also combinahle with water r hence 
the acidulated mineral springs, as of Pyrmon.t, Spa, &c, 
It is this product which gives the agreeable zest to be- 
verages, which are the result of fermentation. Small 
beer, bottled ale, cyder, and champaign, owe their grate- 
ful taste to the diffusion of carbonic acid in these bever- 
ages. It retains all the antiseptic properties of its base, 
carbon, and hence, the importance of it in putrid and 
other diseases of a septic tendency. It is much diffus- 
ed in nature. The Grotto del Cani, and the Lake Aver- 
no, are remarkable for their quantity of this subtle fiuid 
which they exhale : because derived from the combus- 
tion of wood, it was named by Van Heimont) in the 
days of alchemy, gas silvestre. 

123. The carbonate of most importance, is 
the carbonate of lime. 

Illustration. Common chalk is such a carbonate, -and 
only differs from other lime-stone, and from marble, in 
its want of compactness or texture. 

Example. Chalk effervesces with acids, and general- 
ly speaking, all carbonates do the same. 1 his, effer- 
vescence be*rays the disengagement of carbonic acid 
gas, on account of the superior affinity of the acid affu- 
sed, producing the effect. 
D 2 



42 OF CARBON. 

124. Carbonic acid gas is nearly twice as 
heavv, bulk for bulk, as atmospheric air. Ani- 
mals die in it. 

Illustration. Much of the inconvenience, perceived by 
the unfortunate parties who were the victims of suffo- 
cation in the black-hole, at Calcutta, might be referred 
to the carbonic acid gas, which always accumulates 
when rooms want ventilation, and when crowded audi- 
ences necessarily furnish contamination. The paleness 
of complexion, where intent on his pursuits, the student 
breathes in close deleterious gas, 

" Companion of the Midnight-lamp," 

is distinctly marked. Want of attention to these cir- 
cumstances ^s no compliment to the philosophic days in 
which we have the satisfaction to live. 

How frequent are the accidents which take place in 
Breweries, by the ill-timed descent of workmen into 
vats, still filled with fixed air, which is there, from its 
weight, permanently lodged ! 

125. Carbonic acid generally constitutes a 
considerable portion of the atmosphere of cel- 
lars, wells, mines, &c. which have been long 
excluded from the external air. 

126. Charcoal, and all substances which con- 
tain it, yield carbonic acid during combustion. 

Illustration. In compound combustibles, the quantity 
of carbonic acid produced, is, during their combustion, 
as the actual quantity of carbon or charcoal which such 
bodies contain. 

Experiment 1. To procure carbonic acid gas, pound 
chalk, which is a carbonate of lime, and put it 
into a glass retort or phial. Pour on it sulphuric acid 
largely diluted with water. The lime having a stronger 
affinity for the sulphuric acid, will unite to it, and will 
form a sulphate of lime, which is Plaster of Paris, 



OF CARBON. 43 

while the carbonic acid gas will be driven off in great 
abundance, and maybe collected in jars or tumblers. 

2. When there is reason to apprehend the existence 
of carbonic acid gas in wells or other deep places, be- 
fore attempting to enter them a lighted candle should 
always be introduced. If the flame becomes extin- 
guished there is no doubt of the existence of this gas, 
and in order to remove it, quicklime should be let down 
in buckets and gradually sprinkled with water. As the 
lime slacks, it it will absorb the carbonic acid gas and 
will render the air pure. 

3. The action between nitric acid and charcoal is very 
singular. If very fuming acid be made to trickle down 
the sides of a glass vessel containing dry charcoal pow- 
der, the carbon unites to the oxygen of the acid with 
such rapidity as to produce inflammation. The glass 
should first be slightly warmed. 

4. When charcoal is burnt in oxygen gas, nearly the 
whole of it disappears, and the carbonic acid of the new- 
nomenclature appears. The charcoal being made red- 
hot for this purpose, is to be placed upon a dish, and 
introduced into a jar of oxygen gas. It burns with 
great brilliancy. When combustion ceases, pour into 
the glass a small portion of water, containing the tinc- 
ture of litmus, and it will fee converted to a red, intimat- 
ing the formation of acid, during the combustion of the 
charcoal. 

5. Counterpoise a large funnel of paper, in a pair of 
scales, and pour carbonic &eid into it, from the spout of 
ajar, as you would do water, when the descent of the 
balance shews that this gas is heavier than atmosphe- 
ric air. 

6. Poured upon a taper, it extinguishes the flame as 
water would do. 

Observation. Whatever refuses to maintain com- 
bustion, is not subservient to respiration : but, as ani- 
mals plunged into this gas instantaneously perish, it ap- 
pears not only to be negatively, but positively fatal, for 
azotic and hydrogen gases may be breathed several 
times without much mischief. 



44 OF EARTHS. 

Ex. 7. Into a jar, full of mercury, inverted over the 
mercurial apparatus, introduce equal measures of car- 
bonic acid gas and water. Agitate them together, and 
the gas will be absorbed. The water not only reddens 
blue vegetable colours, but is acidulous to the taste. 
As the acid is but loosely combined, heat readily ex- 
pels it from the water, restoring the blue. 

8. Place a lighted candle on the surface of lime water, 
and invert over it a glass vessel, either containing com- 
mon air or oxygen gas. The water will rise in the jar 
when the flame is extinguished, and become milky. 

9. If a small animal be confined in the same situa- 
tion, the same effect will be produced. Respire by a 
tube through lime water, and the lime will be instantly 
precipitated. 

10. When plants, as a sprig of mint, is made to grow 
in carbonic acid, it reduces this to pure oxygen gas, at- 
taching to itself its carbonaceous base. 

Observation. Carbonic acid gas enters into the com- 
position of cyder, perry, bottled beer, and other fermen- 
ted liquors : and occasions the briskness or sparkling, 
(as well as grateful taste,) observed in these fluids. 



EARTHS. 

127/ Earths are uninflammable, inodorous, 
generally insipid, friable, and sparingly soluble 
in water. They are very refractory in the fire. 

128. The names of the simple earths are as 
follows : 

1 Lime. 

2 Alumine or argil which is pure clay. 

3 Silex or pure $ lint. 

4 Magnesia. 

5 Barytes. 



of earths. 45 

6 Strontites. 

7 Ittria. 

8 Glucine. 

9 Zircon. 

129. Of these Lime, Silex, and Alumine are 
the most abundant. 

1 30. Lime is generally found combined with 
carbonic acid, in lime-stone, marble, and chalk, 
and is essential to the constitution of marles. 

Example. If carbonate of lime be exposed to a strong 
heat, in a crucible, carbonic acid and water are disen- 
gaged, equal to 40 per cent of its weight. The resi- 
duum is lime, or as it is called from its caustic and cor- 
rosive quality, quick-lime. 

Observation. Quick-lime resists the action of high de- 
grees of heat, though an excellent flux of the other 
earths. 

Experiment 1. It is remarkable for its attraction for 
water. If boiling water be poured upon it in the dark, 
it exhibits a posphorescent light. 

2. Cold water, when sprinkled on it causes it to swell, 
heat, crack, and crumble to an impalpable powder. In 
this state it is termed slacked-lime. 

3. 1000 ounces of lime are perfectly dry, after hav- 
ing absorbed 222 of water. 

4. Slacked-lime dissolves in water in the proportion 
of one to 600 parts by weight : hence lime-water is per- 
fectly transparent, and even a brilliant fluid. 

5. Lime-water possesses alkaline properties, for 
when poured into blue vegetable infusion they turn 
green. 

6. Exposed to the atmosphere, lime attracts carbonic 
acid, increases in weight, and loses all its character as 
a simple and separate body. 

7. Lime-water, mixed with mild alkali, in solution, 
robs the alkali of its carbonic acid, precipitates in a 
white powdery form, the alkali being left very pure. 



46 OF EARTHS. 

131. The shells of oysters, lobsters, and o- 
ther sea animals, as well as coral, and other 
marine productions, are chiefly composed of 
lime. 

132. Lime is also the chief ingredient in the 
shells of eggs, and in those of snails. 

133. Marie is only valued in proportion as it 
contains this earth. 

134. The compounds containing lime alrea- 
dy referred to, are chiefly such as also contain 
the carbonic acid ; they are therefore, the car- 
bonates of lime. 

135. Lime is obtained pure from lime-stone, 
&c. by the application of heat or caloric, or by 
burning, which drives off the carbonic acid. It 
is then called quick lime. 

136. Lime, after being burnt, has a strong 
attraction or affinity for water, and when it has 
imbibed a proper quantity of this fluid, it is 
called slaked lime. 

Observation. The beat which is yielded during- this 
operation, is derived from the water : not the lime. It 
is the heat of liquidity rendered perceptible during- the 
action of slacking, for lime, properly slacked, is perfect- 
ly dry, the water is therefore in a concrete state, at 
least such portion as remains combined with the lime. 

137. Lime unites with other acids. Plaster 
of Paris, or gypsum, is a combination of lime 
and the sulphuric acid. 

Observation. This compound, though used in husban- 
dry, is very different in its action from the lime -stone 
preparations already alluded to, for burning docs not 



OF EARTHS, 47 

banish its acid ; yet, by depriving- it of its constituent 
portion of water of chrystalization, it becomes pulveru- 
lent, and very energetic upon certain grounds. 

138. Alumine is a peculiar earth, found most 
abundant in alum, whence its characteristic 
name, 

139. It abounds in all clays and argillaceous 
earths. It gives a laminated texture to the 
fossils in which it abounds. 

Observation. When pure, it is a fine white powder, 
smooth and soapy to the touch, adhering to the tongue. 
Alumine constitutes a large portion of the potter's and 
fuller's earth. It enters into the combination of the 
ruby and sapphire. It is employed in making the pyro- 
meter of We DGWooD,in porcelain and in the construction 
of furnaces, and especially in the manufacture of bricks 
and tiles. It is never found pure, though very abund- 
ant in the globe. 

140. Clays are found generally moist, in 
their natural state, on account of the great at- 
traction of alumine for water. 

Observation. It is tills circumstance which constitutes 
alumine the basis of the art of pottery, an art which has 
>een brought, in this country, [England] to the highest 
perfection, by the labours of one enlightened individual, 
or such was Mr. Wedgwood. 

141. Clay, when diffused, and wrought into 
t paste with water, is highly ductile and plas- 
ic. On being exposed to intense degrees of 
leat, it becomes impenetrable to it. 

Observation. Crucibles, retorts, glass-house pots, 
tone-ware, queen's ware, &c. refer to alumine as their 
.ecessary basis. 



48 OF EARTHS* 

142. Silex, or the earth of flints, is most a- 
bundantly found in that fossil. It scintillates 
with steel, which is a distinguishing property, 
dependant upon its extreme hardness. 

Observation. It cuts glass like diamond. It is nearly 
pure in the whitest sand, as that from Lynn, in Norfolk. 
The fluoric acid is its proper menstruum : it fuses also 
into a glass, with the boraic and phosphoric acids. It 
is essential in the manufacture of glass, pastes, and fac- 
titious gems. 

143. Free-stone and gravel contain silex, 
but almost always united to foreign matter, and 
in England, often to iron. 

144. The stones so much admired under the 
name of pebbles, are also compounds of siiex 
and other matters. 

Observation. These are wrought by the lapidary into 
various trinkets, seals, &c. much esteemed for their 
hardness and variegated tints, or grotesque fractures 
when polished. There is an Egyptian pebble, at the 
British Museum, which, being accidentally fractured, 
exhibited a very correct likeness of the celebrated 
and earliest British poet, Jeffery Chaucer, as appears by 
comparing it with an old painting on pannel, also in the 
collection. Scotch pebbles are also much admired. The 
agate is of this order. 

145. Porphyry, granite, whinstone, and bas- 
altes, which last composes the celebrated giant's 
causeway in Ireland, and Fingal's cave in the 
island of Staffa, have the silicious earth for their 
basis. 

Observation. It is besides contained in quartz, and the 
business of the enameller depends greatly on its employ- 
ment. Under particular circumstances* it becomes so- 



OF EARTHS. 49 

luble even in water. This is known to those who have 
visited the Geysers or hot springs of Iceland. Chalcedony 
or white agate is the natural deposit of silex from its 
aqueous solution. It is found in the ashes of most plants, 
and in the interior coating of the common cane, used for 
walking sticks, many of which are said to strike fire 
with steel. 

146. The common black gun-flint belongs 
€o silicious stones, and is always found in bads 
of chalk and limestone. 

147. Rock chrystal exhibits silex in its pur- 
est natural state. 

148. Magnesia is never found pure in nature, 
but is generally procured from the sulphate of 
magnesia (Epsom salt) which exists in mineral 
springs. 

149. The mineral springs of Epsom former- 
ly supplied the greater part of what was used 
in commerce, from whence it derived its name. 

Observation' The substances talc, asbestos, amianthus % 
and steatites, are fossils which contain it. Magnesia alba, 
of the shops is its carbonate, while pure magnesia is ge- 
nerally but improperly distinguished by the term calcin- 
ed. 

Example 1. If we decompose the suiphateof magnesia 
by adding the carbonate of potash, both in solution, we 
obtain the carbonate of magnesia. 

2. If we expose the carbonate of magnesia to a high 
lieat, in a crucible, we shall obtain pure magnesia. 

Illustration. For when exposed at a red heat, it be- 
comes deprived of its carbonic acid, and leaves behind 
the while, tasteless, and nearly insoluble earth, magne- 
sia. 

Observation. It is chiefly used in medicine as an anti- 
dote to acids, when the stomach by indigestion is suf- 
fering from such crudities. 

E 



50 OF EARTHS. 

150. Barytes has its name from its weight, 
it is the heaviest of the earths. It is acrid, 
caustic, and possesses alkaline qualities. 

Observation. It is more soluble than the other earths, 
and possesses a greater affinity for acids, with which it is 
found naturally always combined. In medicine it can 
only be exhibited in a small quantity, on account of its 
poisonous quality. It has been employed as a powder for 
killing- rats* 

Example Pure barytes is soluble in water, and is a 
test of the presence of sulphuric acid, to which, whea 
its aqueous solution is added, a ponderous substance, in 
the form of an impalpable powder, is precipitated. 

151. StrontiteSy another earth, so named 
from the place in Scotland, where it was found 
to exist in abundance. 

152. When pure, it is very like the last in 
appearance, and has a bitter taste. "No sub- 
stance in nature, but this, tinges flame of a car- 
mine colour. The chrystals of its salts differ 
from those of barytes. They are also more 
soluble. 

Experiment 1. Dissolve a little of the muriate of stron« 
tites : add alcohol, kindle it, and beautiful red flames 
ascend. 

2. Or put a little of the salt upon a candle, and the 
carmine flame is instantly produced. 

Example. Strontites is further remarkable for the bril- 
liancy of the flame it exhibits when heated at the blow- 
pipe. 

Observation- It possesses, like the other earths, tena- 
city, fixity in fire, sparing solubility, freedom from odour, 
and does not give a tinge to glass. Of the earths, it 
must be admitted, that those most generally useful, are 
Time, alumine, silex, magnesia, and barytes. 



OF EARTHS. 51 

1.53. Ittria is an earth recently discovered in 
Sweden. It is characterized by the general 
properties of the other earths, differing in some 
few particulars. 

154. Glucine is a constituent of some pre- 
cious stones. The emerald and beryl yield it. 

Experiment. Its sulphate in solution, is remarkable, 
for giving a yellow percipitate when added to the infu- 
sion of the gall-nut. 

155. Zircon is found in the hyacinth of Cey- 
lon. 

Observation. It differs fromsilex and aluxnine, in being 
soluble in the fixed alkalies. 



OF THE METALS. 

156. Metals are distinguished from other 
bodies by their weight, opacity and splendour ; 
also by their property of conducting the galva- 
nic electric fluids. 

157. The closeness of their texture ? their 
ducility, and malleability, and the power which 
all have to reflect light when polished, fit them 
for being converted into various utensils, both 
for the purposes of common life, and the dif- 
ferent arts. 

158. Metals are the heaviest of all bodies. 

Observation. This applies only to such as are already 
known. 



52 OF METALS. 

Example. Tin, bulk for bulk, weighs seven times as 
much as water, and platina nearly twenty -three times as 
much. 

159. The metals are incapable of transmit- 
ting light through their substance. 

Observation . Gold, however, when very finely lamina- 
ted, does transmit light. 

160. They are remarkable for being conduc- 
tors of heat and electicity. 

161. The most common and best known 
among the metals, may be beat into any form, 
under the hammer, without cracking or crumb- 
ling. This property implies their malleability. 

Observation. In whatever manner we extend the sur- 
face of a metal, though previously cold, it is found to 
wax warm, and become rigid, and refuses, under rol- 
lers, to extend further. We restore it to its former 
pliancy, by rubbing it to heat, and then allowing it to 
cool gradually. This is called annealing it. When it 
has been again extended, more heat becomes sensible, 
and is lost, and this must be again restored if we would 
wish to extend it any further. 

Illustration. When metals are subjected to heat, they 
expand in every direction, and all in different propor- 
tions. When the temperature is more increased, they 
become liquid, and, if in mass, present a convex sur- 
face, if in small drops, they are globular, as in the case 
of metals, fused at the blow-pipe, If the temperature 
be increased considerably beyond that necessary for 
fusion, they may be sometimes volatilized unchanged. 

Example. Mercury is evaporated at 600°, but is con- 
crete at minus 40*. " Lead melts at a heat below the 
boiling point of mercury. Iron, at a strong white heat, 
becomes a sort of liquid paste, and platina cannot be 
fused in the greatest heat which can be produced in our 
furnaces, but requires the aid of a blow-pipe and oxygen 
gas. 



OF METALS. 53 

162. Metals are concerted into a fluid state 
by the addition of caloric. This is termed jfa- 
sion. 

Observation. Some arc always in that state, even at 
almost all known temperatures, as mercury. 

163. When the heat is long continued in the 
open air, most of the metals become rusted, or 
assume a cinder-like appearance, by attracting 
that part of the air called oxygen. 

164. They are then called oxides of the 
metals, and are said to have been oxidized. 

165. In the state of oxides or rust they may 
be dissolved in water and other fluids, in order 
to form dyes, painter's colours, &c. 

Example 1. Copper becomes oxidated by being made 
red-hot, and exposed for a time to the atmosphere in 
that state. 

2. Coiled iron-wire also, when heated for some time 
to redness in the bowl of a tobacco-pipe, loses its me- 
tallic splendour, and crumbles into a rust or oxide of 
iron. 

3. Antimony being* exposed to a red-heat, on an iron 
plate, and a stream of oxygen gas pressed from a tube 
attached to a bag containing it upon its surface, be- 
comes converted with a beautiful appearance, into the 
oxide of antimony. 

4. Zinc, exposed to a red-heat in a crucible, exhibits 
combustion, oxidation, and sublimation of the oxid, 
•which when cold, is beautifully white and delicate. 

5. Wrap the finest harpsichord-wire round a watch- 
spring, ascertain its weight, set it upright in a copper 
dish, in ajar of oxygen gas, inflame a bit of*cotton, dip- 
ped in wax, and attached to the upper end of the wire, 
when a beautiful deflagration will ensue, and the metal 
will be found, in a state of oxide, to have increased in 
weight. 

E 2 



54 OF METALS. 

166. Gold, silver, and platina, were called 
noble metals, it being suspected that they could 
not be oxidized or altered by fire and air. 

Observation. Metals are also oxidized by being" im- 
mersed in the substances called acids, which part with 
their oxygen or acidifying principle to the metals, and 
reduce them to oxides. 

167. A metallic oxide is generally in pow- 
der, resembling earth. 

168. Oxides weigh more than the metal from 
which they are produced. 

Illustration. If we melt one hundred pounds weight 
of lead in the open air, and keep it in a melted state 
until it is oxidised or changed into red-lead, it will be 
found to weigh one hundred and ten pounds. It has 
therefore imbibed ten pounds weight of oxygen from the 
atmosphere. 

169. Metals, in the state of oxides, may be 
broughtback to their metallic state. This pro- 
cess is called reduction. 

Illustration. As charcoal has a stronger attraction for 
oxygen than any of the metals, mix up some common 
red lead (oxide of lead) and charcoal, and expose the 
mixture in a shovel upon a strong tire. When the shovel 
is nearly red hot, the charcoal will be found to have rob- 
bed the red lead of its oxygen ; common lead will be 
found in a melted state. 

Observation. There are some oxides of metals that 
attract their contained oxygen so feebly, that the action 
of heat alone is sufficient for their reduction. 

2. Mercury, by a long and patient application of a 
moderate heat, changes to the red oxide of mercury* 
called formerly precipitate per se, because obtained with- 
out any visible addition. 



OF METALS. 55 

Illustration. During this process, oxygen is always 
absorbed from the surrounding air, and a proportionate 
weight is acquired. 

Example. This red oxide, being exposed to a higher 
degree of heat, abandons the oxygen for which it had 
no longer any attraction. The oxygen passes off in the 
form of oxygen gas. 

Illustration. It is upon this principle that oxygen gas 
is obtained by exposure to heat alone of the black oxide 
of manganese, which, of almost all substances, yields 
oxygen most abundantly, at least, at the simplest cost. 

1 70. The metals combine or unite with sul- 
phur, phosphorus, and carbon. These combi- 
nations are called sulphurets, phosphurets and 
carburets. 

171. The metals after being oxidized are dis- 
solved by most of the substances called acids, 
and form solutions. 

1 72. The solution of the metals in the acids 
is attended with effervescence and heat, and in 
cases where the water is decomposed and not 
the acid, hydrogen gas is emitted. 

173. The oxides of the metals readily unite 
with glass when melted together, and give it all 
the different tinges, by which it is made to re- 
semble gems, or precious stones. 

J 74. Compounds of two metals are more 
easily melted than when separate, and on this 
account are used for soldering. 

Illustration. The solder used for gold workmanship, 
is a mixture of gold and silver, and for silver a mixture 
of silver and copper. 

175. Compounds of metals oxidize much 
more readily than separate metals. 



56 OF METALS. 

1 76. No metals are found in a pure state, ex- 
cept gold, silver, copper and mercury, 

1 7T. They are found in the states of ores, or 
mixed and blended with earths and other sub- 
stances. 

178. Sometimes the ore is a pure oxide, and 
requires a simple operation to separate the oxy- 
gen from the metal. 

Illustration. The brown, or orange-coloured eartli 
called ochre, is an oxide of iron. Mix some of it with 
charcoal, and make the mixture red hot, the charcoal 
will take off the oxygen, and pure iron will remain. 

179. Metals are found in nature in various 
states. When uncombined, or when combined 
only with each other, they are said to be in a 
native state. When combined with other sub- 
stances,so that the metallic properties are in some 
measure disguised, they are said to be mineral- 
ized, or in a state of ore, this ore is usually 
mixed with various earthy fossils, such as 
quartz, fluor spar, &c. 

Illustration. The ore may be separated from the ac- 
companying" fossils by being pounded with hammers or 
stampers. It is then washed on an inclined plane,by which 
means the water carries off the earthy substance, and the 
metallic matter remains behind. After this operation 
the ore, if it contain sulphur, arsenic or any acid, is sub- 
jected to a low red heat, which is termed roasting it, 
by which any of these substances is expelled. The me- 
tal is then reduced by placing in a furnace alternate 
layers of the charcoal, and the metallic substance. A 
strong heat is excited by bellows ; the carbonaceous 
matter attracts the oxygen with which the metal is com- 
bined, while the pure metal runs out at the bottom of 
tuc furnace. 



OF METALS. 57 

180. Gold, plantina, silver, mercury, cop- 
per, iron, tin, lead, nickel and zinc, are called 
malleable metals, and may be beat into any 
shape with the hammer. 

181. Bismuth, antimony, tellurium, and 
arsenic, are called brittle metals that may be 
easily fused or melted. 

1 82. Cobalt, manganese, tungsten, molybdena, 
uranium, titanium, chrome, columbium, tanta- 
lium, cerium and nickel, are fused with diffi- 
culty. 

183. Besides the metals above mentioned 
there are four distinct ones, which have been 
found to exist associated with platina, viz. iri- 
dium, osmium, rhodium, and palladium. 

184. Gold is the more ductile and malleable 
(that is, more easily beaten out with a hammer), 
than most of the metals. 

185. It cannot be changed, rusted, or oxidi- 
zed by the application of the common heat of a 
furnace, or by exposure to the air or water. 

186. Gold may be dissolved in the acid 
known by the name of aqua regia, called in 
chemistry nitro-muriatic acid. 

Ex. Dissolve a piece of gold, or gold leaf in aqua 
regia, and afterwards immerse a sheet of tin in the so- 
lution. The gold will adhere to the tin in the form of 
beautiful purple powder, which, when scraped off, is 
the powder of cassius, so much used in painting and 
enamelling. This is an oxide of gold. 

187. Platinum or Platina is found in the 
mines of Peru, in South America. It is heavier 



o8 OF METALS. 

than gold, and is therefore the heaviest sub- 
stance in nature. 

188. Plantina is of a dull silvery, or grey 
colour, and is inferior to gold in point of mal- 
leability. 

189. It is melted or fused with more difficul- 
ty than any of the other metals, requiring a 
much higher degree of heat, and has been some- 
times used for chemical utensils, such as cruci- 
bles, spoons, &c. which will resist the strongest 
heat that can be excited in our ordinary fur- 
naces. 

190. Platina combines with most other me- 
tals. It is harder than any other metal, iron 
excepted. 

Illustration 1. Mirrors for telescopes are made of it of 
exquisite beauty. The Spaniards are in the habit of 
mixing it with iron, in order to form gun-barrels, which 
are said never to rust, and which are much stronger 
than iron barrels alone. It gives to iron a remarkable 
toughness. It may form a valuable coating for copper 
and iron, and will hereafter become precious for the 
formation of coins and medals. 

2. Platina, in its malleable state, may be cut with a 
knife. 

3. With steel, platina forms an alloy, not to be touch • 
ed with the file. 

191. Silver ranks next to gold in beauty and 
malleability. 

192. Its uses in chemistry are confined to its 
operation when dissolved in nitric acid (aqua- 
fortis). 

193. A solution of silver thus formed, is cal- 
led nitrate of silver. 



OF METALS. 59 

Illustration* It will dye red hair of a fine black, if the 
hair is bathed with it once or twice, but the solution 
should be diluted with water, otherwise it will burn the 
skin. 

194. When the water of this solution is eva- 
porated by being boiled, a solid substance re- 
mains, called lunar caustic, which burns or 
corrodes almost every substance with which it 
comes in contact. 

195. The nitrate of silver may be decom- 
posed, or the silver restored, by other metals 
being thrown into the solution. 

Ex. 1. If we procure a smooth piece of copper, and 
dip it in a solution of silver, as above prepared, the cop- 
per will be covered with silver. In this way the opera- 
tion called plating is performed. 

2. Fill a glass phial with solution of silver, and drop 
into it a small quantity of quicksilver ; the silver will 
fall towards the bottom, or be precipitated, and as the 
particles of the silver and the quicksilver have an attrac- 
tion for each other, the precipitate will assume the form 
of the branches of a tree. This has been called Diana's 
tree. 

196. Mercury, or ^titcksilver, is distinguish- 
ed from every other metal, by having so strong 
an attraction for caloric or heat, that it remains 
fluid in the ordinary temperature of the atmos- 
phere. 

197. It may be frozen or rendered solid, 
however, by applying a great degree of cold to 
it. In this state it is a ductile and malleable 
metal, resembling block tin. 

198. Mercury combines easily with sulphur, 



60 OF METALS. 

and the compound is then called sulphuret o*f 
mercury. 

Illustration. Put some sulphur and quicksilver into a 
shovel, and make the whole red-hot over a strong fire, 
the beautiful paint called vermillion or cinnabar will then 
be produced, which is a sulphuret of mercury. 

199. Cinnabar is found in a natural state, 
and is considered as an ore of mercury. 

200. Mercury unites with other metals, but 
the proportion of the mercury must be always 
the least. 

201. The union of mercury with another 
metal, is called an amalgam, which is generally 
soft, and of the consistence of butter. 

Illustration. The silvering used for looking-glasses is 
an amalgam of tin and mercury. Tin foils is spread 
over the glass, and fluid mercury poured upon it. The 
metals are made to unite, or are amalgamated, by being 
pressed together with weights. 

Observation. Mercury is used also in the construction 
of barometers, thermometers, and in medicine. A ful- 
minating mercury has been of late discovered. 

202. Copper is hard, sonorous, highly mal- 
leable, and ductile, of a ruddy brilliant colour. 

203. If exposed to a very strong fire, it emits 
white fumes, and burns with a green flame of 
great beauty and brilliancy. 

204. Copper is used in the arts connected 
with chemistry, when united with the substan- 
ces called acids. 

Observation. 1- All the salts of copper are poisonous, 
therefore great care should be taken not to taste wan 



OF METALS. 61 

tpnly the solutions. Utensils made of copper or brass, 
are, if possible, to be avoided, for culinary purposes. 
Zinc, tinned iron, and pottery, are cheap and proper sub- 
titutes. 

2. The neutral salts, formed by this metal and the 
acids, are either of a beautiful blue or green. With the 
sulphuric acid, blue. The nitrates, muriates, and ace- 
tates, are green. 

Experiment 1. Moisten the surface of a penny -piece 
with a solution of nitrate of mercury, it instantly appears 
as if covei*ed with silver. 

2. Ammonia precipitates the copper of the sulphate of 
ammonia. This precipitate is of a whitish blue, but it 
dissolves almost the moment it is formed, and there re- 
sults a liquor of an exceedingly fine azure blue, formerly 
called aqua ccelestis. 

3. Iron precipitates copper from its solutions in a me- 
tallic state. Dip a knife -blade, free from grease, into 
a solutiou of sulphate of copper, and it appears to be 
transmuted into that metal. 

Illustration. When a piece of copper is put into acetic 
acid (vinegar), the copper takes the acid matter of ox- 
ygen from the vinegar, and the substance called verdi- 
grise is formed, so much used by painters. This is cal- 
led an acetite of copper. 

205. Copper combines, or may be alloyed 
with most of the metals. 

Illustration. The gold coin of all countries is alloyed 
with a certain quantity of copper, to render it more 
durable. 

Observation. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in 
the proportion of three parts copper, and one zinc. Bell- 
metal contains silver, which is thought to add much to 
its sonorousness, Copper, with iron, forms the elder ado, 
or Mr. Keirs patent metal for window-frames, which 
possesses at the same time elegance and strength, little 
obstructing the light, when wrought into the requisite 
shape. 

F 



62 OF METALS. 

206. Copper, united with the metal of zinc, 
in the proportion of three parts of copper to 
one of zinc, forms the compound called brass. 

207. Iron is the most abundant of the metals. 
It has a peculiar taste and smell, but which are 
not pernicious. 

208. It is the toughest of all the metals, hut 
is less malleable than gold, silver, or copper. 

209. Iron is always found in the state of an 
ore, or in other words an oxide of tilt metal, 
mixed with earth. 

210. It is separated from the ore by being 
melted along with charcoal, in a furnace. 

211. When in a fluid or melted state, it is 
run into moulds, and is then called pig, or cast 
iron. 

212. Cast iron, upon being made red-hot and 
beaten with hammers for some time, becomes 
wrought iron, and is made into bars. 

213. Steel is iron combined with about one- 
sixteenth part of its weight of the substance 
called carbon. 

Illustration. There are three kinds of steel, known by 
the names of natural steel, steel of cementation, and cast 
steel- Natural steel is prepared by simply heating cast 
iron for a certain time in a furnace. Steel of cementa- 
tion, or blistered, as it is sometimes called, is prepared 
by covering- bars of wrought iron with powdered char- 
coal, and heating them in a close furnace for eight or 
ten days. Cast steel is made by heating 1 blistered steel 
in the same way, in the midst of a quantity of chalk. 

214. Iron combines with the sulphuric acid. 
The compound is the sulphate of irQn y (green 
vitriol or copperas). 



OF METALS. 63 

Illustration. This substance has the peculiar property 
of striking a black with the astringent principle contain- 
ed in the gall-nut, tanner's bark, green tea, oak -awv 
dust, &c, and hence forms the black dye for hats, 
clothes, &c. 

Experiment 1. With infusions of galls it forms the ink 
with which we write. 

Illustration. The more oxygen the iron contains, the 
deeper the black produced. Henc«s ink becomes black- 
er after it is written, for its constituent, iron, continues 
to absorb its oxygen from the air, until it be wholly sa- 
turated. 

Experiment % With the Prussic acid, sulphate of iron 
forms a beautiiui blue. This is the Prussian or Berlin 
blue. 

3. Ste;,; iJings and sulphur mixed, and moistened 
with grater* in a few hours become hot, the water is de- 
composed, its oxygen corrodes the iron, and converts 
the sulphur into acid, while its hydrogen flies off in the 
form of gas. 

Observation. 1. The heat increases sometimes to such 
a degree as to cause the mixture to burst out into 
flames. This has been considered as an artificial vol- 
cano Iron gives the medicinal value to Chalybeate 
springs, as of Cheltenham, Tunbridge, &c. 

2. "The knowledge, treatment, and modification of 
iron, in it3 different states, by rendering it the most 
useful of metals, have great influence on the happiness 
and power of nations, The perfection of iron works fol- 
lows the degree of civilization of man." Iron is the only 
metal which could not be dispensed with in the present 
condition of the arts. 

215. Tin is a metal extremely malleable, but 
it is inferior to most others in ductility. 

216. It unites or combines with almost all 
the other metals. 

217. When mixed with copper in different 
proportions, it forms bronze, bell-metal, and 
the materials of which cannons ' made. 



64 GF METALS. 

218. It is also used for tinning various me- 
tals, to prevent their tarnish or oxidation. 

N.B. Copper should be always tinned when used for 
culinary purposes. 

Experime?it 1. Tin, when melted in a crucible into 
which apiece of clean iron, as a knife-blade, being dip- 
ped, comes out perfecty tinned. 

2. Tin, rubbed over the surface of a plate of copper, 
will assume a silvery appearance, becoming completely 
covered with a coating of tin. 

3. For galvanic experiments, in the construction of 
the compound plates of zinc and copper, union is effect- 
ed by a solder of simple tinfoil, interposed between the 
two metals, and then heated. 

4. The action of fire being continued after tin 
becomes fused, it oxidates. This oxide of tin is termed 
tutty, or putty, and is used for the purpose of giving a 
high polish to glass. 

5. Fused at the blow-pipe with glass, the white oxide 
of tin, or tutty, yields a white enamel. 

6. Nitric acid oxidates tin, (in leaves or foil) very 
greedily, and allows it to precipitate in the form of 
white oxide of tin. 

7. Sulphuric acid dissolves the nitrate of tin, which 
has the property of being again precipitated by water. 

Observation I. The scarlet-dye, or bright red of the 
dyers, depends upon the solution of tin in the nitro-mu- 
riatic acid. 

2. It is remarkable that tin, when combined with other 
metals, antimony excepted, forms an alloy of greater 
specific gravity than the heavier metal with which it is 
combined. 

219. Lead is a heavy metal of a pale lived 
white colour. It is the softest and least elastic 
of ail the solid metals. 

220. By the joint action of heat and air, 
lead becomes oxidated, and exhibits different 



OF METALS. 65 

colours, according to the proportion of oxygen 
with which it may have combined. 

Illustration. Massicot , Utliarge, and minium, or red 
lead, are oxides of lead, but these three colours con- 
tain different proportions of oxygen. Massicot the least, 
and minium the largest portion. 

Experiment 1. Litharge, urged by a strong fire,, 
melts into a yellow glass. 

2- Lead, exposed in thin slips to the fumes of vinegar 
or the acetic acid, is converted at the surface into 
white flakes, which is the purest white-lead when 
ground, or jtake-*ivhiie. 

Observation 1. Lead is commonly found mineralized 
with sulphur, forming sulphuret of lead, or galena. 

2. The oxides of lead are used in glass works, to fa- 
cilitate the fusion of the glass, to render it heavier, sof- 
ter, and more fit to be cut or polished. 

Example 1. The oxides of lead being fused with car- 
bonaceous matter as on charcoal at the blow-pipe, are 
revived. 

2. All the oxides of lead are soluble in vinegar, and 
the compound has a sweet styptic astringency, much 
disguised, arid known with difficulty by the palate 
when tested. 

Illustration. Hence, to wines having become sour, it 
Is not unusual to add flake-white, which neutralizes the 
acid only ; such wines when drank are highly detrimen- 
tal to the frame. Palsies, lock-jaw, and dreadful affec- 
tions of the bowels are among the train of evil which 
such disguised and baneful beverages occasion. In- 
deed it is a notorious fact, that workmen, accustomed 
to the grinding of colours, are sooner or later afflic- 
ted with the disease termed painter's eholic. 

221. Lead, mixed with tin, forms pewter, 
which has different degrees of hardness, accor- 
ding to the proportions employed. 

Observation. Lead has various uses in the arts ; for 
pipes to convey liquids, cauldrons, &,c. the inside of boxes 
F 2 



66 OF MITAL5, 

audit Is sometimes alloyed for lining tea-cfrcsfcs : louses 
are covered with it. It is also employed for the pur- 
pose of making shot and bullets. It is a customary, but 
fraudulent practice, to mix it with tin for tinning culina- 
ry utensils. 

222. Nickel is a whiteish metal, found hi 
Germany, but is most abundant in China. 

223. The Chinese call it white copper, and 
form it into utensils, but it has never been ap- 
plied to any useful purpose in Great Britain. 

224. Zinc, or Spelter, as it is called by the 
English workmen, is found in the stone or sub- 
stance called calamine. 

225. It is of a shining blueish white colour, 
And has been recently used when beat out into 
plates, for covering the roofs of houses. 

226. TV hen mixed with copper this metal is 
used in making brass, pinchbeck, &c. It is also 
the base of white vitriol which is a sulphate 
of zinc. 

227. When made red-hot, it emits a brilliant 
blueish light ; and white flakes, resembling 
wool or snow, ascend into the air. 

Illustration. The beautiful blue stars, exhibited in 
'fii'e- works, are produced by mixing zinc in filings, 
with gunpowder. 

228. Antimony is a metal of adusky white co- 
lour, procured in Hungary and Norway. 

229. In its metallic state, it is used, when 
mixed with lead, for making printer's typcs^ to 
which it imparts hardness. 



OF METALS. bt 

230. When in the state of an oxide, it is used 
in medicine, but requires to be applied with 
caution. 

Experiment 1. When exposed to heat sufficient to 
melt it in the open air, it shews its combustible nature, 
and emits a white smoke, which , when condensed, is 
called the silver or snow of antimony. It is an oxide of 
that metal. 

2. If this oxide be excluded from the external air, and 
fused, it assumes a glassy appearance, and is called the 
glass of antimony. 

3. To a boiling solution of pure potash, add some of 
the crude antimony of the shops, which consists of sul- 
phur and antimony. The alkali combines with all the 
sulphur, and part of the metal. Neutralize the alkali 
by the addition of the sulphuric acid, and it will unite 
with a larger proportion of sulphur than it was original- 
ly combined with, and fall down in the form of golden 
sulphur of antimony. 

This has been in high esteem as a medicine, but the 
principal uses of antimony are in speculum metal, type- 
metal, and the finer sort of pewter. It combines readily 
with other metals, gold excepted. 

231. Bismuth is not malleable like other 
metals. It crumbles into powder when struck 
witK a hammer, instead of spreading into thin 
plates. 

232. It is found mixed with the ores of the 
metal called cobalt, in the mines of Saxony, and 
is also used for making printer's types, when 
united with lead. 

283, When mixed or alloyed with some o- 
ther metals, it renders them so easily fused, 
jhat the conlpositioiri ftrill melt in boiling 



68 OF METALS. 

JSx. Melt four ounces of bismuth, two and a half oun- 
ces of lead, and an ounce and a half of tin together, in an 
iron ladle, over the fire. When the composition cools, 
tea-spoons, or other articles may be shaped out of it, and 
if put into hot tea, or water, they will be immediately 
melted, and will fall in a solid mass, to the bottom of the 
tea-cup. 

234. Arsenic is sometimes found native, but 
generally combined with other metals. 

235. Under every form it is poisonous, al- 
though it is sometimes used in medicine, ia 
very small quantities. 

236. It burns in the fire with a bright flame 
and emits an odour resembling that of garlic. 

237'. When mixed with copper, it forms a 
white metal, which is capable of being plated 
with silver, to great advantage. 

238. When combined with sulphur, it fur- 
nishes a variety of valuable dyes or colours. 

Illustration 1. Orpiment, or the substance from which 
the beautiful colour called king's yellow is made, is sui- 
phuret of arsenic. 

2. Realgar ; being the dye-stuff which yields a dark 
orange, or scarlet, is a similar compound of arsenic. Both 
are used by dyers and painters. 

Observation. Most of the preparations of this metal, 
are in a high degree noxious ; therefore, to ascertain 
the presence of arsenic, in many instances of forensic 
medicine, is a matter of moment. Arsenic may even, at 
first sight, be taken as sugar. If any suspicion arise, it 
may be cleared up by throwing some of it in the fire : 
the white smoke and the garlick smell, discover the ar- 
senic. If the misfortune of swallowing some arsenic 
should take place, the following is said to be a direct 
antidote : — A drachm of sulphate of potash, or vitriola- 
ted tartar, is to be dissolved in a quart of water, to be 



OF METALS. 69 

drank by the sick person at several draughts ; the sul- 
phur combining with the arsenic, destroys its noxious 
quality. 

Example. In its metallic state, it enters into the com- 
position of several alloys, for the formation of specula. It 
is used in making small shot, to render the lead more 
capable of running- into granules. It is also employed, 
like many other metals, in dying and col ico -printing; it 
enters into the composition of some sorts of glass, and 
forms several excellent pigments. Besides these uses, it 
is employed in medicine. It is the basis of white enamel 
as also of the faces of watches in general. 

239. Cobalt is a greyish brittle metal, resem- 
bling steel. 

240. It is used in the state of an oxide only, 
for making colours. 

Illustration. The blue colours given to earthenware^ 
porcelain, glass, and enamels, is produced by the appli- 
cation of zaffre, or oxide of cobalt, wrought up into a 
kind of paint. It is also called smalt by painters. 

Example. The muriatic acid dissolves the oxide of 
cobalt with great facility. This solution is of a sub-red, 
and, when evaporated, affords pale green chrystals, 
soluble in spirits of wine, and decompoundable by fire. 

Observation. This solution, as well as the aqua regia 
solution of cobalt, possesses the singular property, that 
when diluted with water, and used as an ink, the letters 
are invisible, but appear of a beautiful green colour 
when heated. This sympathetic ink is best prepared 
by adding culinary salt to a solution of nitrate of cobalt, 
for thus the nitric acid is changed into an aqua regia, 
and the nitrate of soda, produced at the same time, pre- 
vents the paper from being corroded. 



70 



OF METALS. 



241* Ammonia dissolves zaffre, or the ore 
of cobalt, and the result is a liquor of a fine | 
red. 

242. Manganese is never found except inj 
the state of a black oxide. 

243. It is never applied to any use in itsj 
metallic state. 

244; It is therefore used to produce an ox-j 
ide : it contains forty per cent, of oxygen] 
which it can be made to give out by the appiil 
cation of heat. 

Illustration. In the highest state of oxidation, manga 
nese, like most other metals, is not soluble in acids, 
you pour the nitric acid upon it, there is therefore i 
action, but if the oxide be mixed with some inflammJ 
ble substances, as sugar, which can combine withapol 
tion of oxygen, it is then dissolved. If the sulphurl 
acid be poured upon it, and heat be applied, the excel 
of oxygen is driven off, in consequence of an attractitf 
between the acid and the less oxidated metal, and tH 
sulphate of manganese is produced. If the muriad 
acid be employed, part of the acid combines with tl 
excess of oxygen, and forms the oxymuriatic acid, an 
part forms the muriate of manganese, with the oxil 
thus rendered capable of saline combination. 

245; Black oxide of manganese is used ; 
produce oxygen gas, or to add a higher 
gree of acidity to substances already acid, 
communicating to them a stronger portion 
oxygen, or the acidifying principle; 

Observation- Alkalies precipitate a light coloured i 
ide from these salts, which attracts oxygen, and M 
comes dark by exposure to the air. Alkalies also coff 



OF METALS. 71 

bine with manganese, and, if the fixed alkalies are used, 
form the mineral chameleon. 

Experiment. Mix an ounce of powdered nitre, with 
six drachms of the black oxide of manganese, and ex- 
pose them to a red heat in a crucible, until no more ox- 
ygen is produced. There then remains a dark coloured 
tmass, remarkable for the variety of colours it produces 
-when different quantities of hot water are poured on it. 
put a small quantity of it into a glass vessel, pour in a 
little water, and the colour will be green. Add more, 
fend the colour becomes blue, a third portion makes it 
purple, while a few drops of the sulphuret of lime des- 
troys its colour, by robbing it of its oxygen. 

I Observation, Oxide of manganese is used in the glass 
jpanufactories, to clear the glass of its green or yellow 
|tue. For this reason it has been called glass-maker's 
soap. It is likewise used to give a violet hue to glass 
Ind porcelain. 

I 246. Chrome exists in the state of an acid, 
dbmfamed with an oxide of lead, in the redlead 
ore of Siberia. It derives its name from the 
sjplendid and numerous colours which it pre- 
sents in its saline combinations. 

I 247. Chromate of iron is said to have been 
ciscovered in France and in Siberia. 

§248. The combinations of chromic acid with 
metallic oxides in general exhibit the most 
bfautiful colours, which are well adapted to 
f«m the finest paints, With the oxide of lead 
itjpro duces an orange yellow of various shades; 
vMth mercury, a vermiilion red ; and with zinc 
arid bismuth a yellow. This metal combined 
with iron has lately been found in the neigh- 
bdurhood of Baltimore in large quantities. 



72 OF alkalies; 

Note. The specific gravity of platina is as 23 — water 
being* unity. — The specific gravity of gold 19 — of silver 
I0 T 5 ^,— of mercury 13^,— of lead 1 1 T 3 ^,— of copper 8 T 5 ^ ? 
ofiron7^_ 5 —of tin 7 T 3 ^,— -of zinc 7— of antimony 6 T 7 £,— 
of bismuth 9 1,— nickel 8 T 9 ^,— arsenic 5 T 7 ^,— cobalt 7 T 8 ^, 
and of manganese 7. 

249. The rest of the metals enumerated in 
the beginning of this section, have never yet 
been applied to any useful purpose, and theiv 
chemical properties are but slightly known. 

OF THE ALKALIES. 

250. The alkalies have a bitter and some- 
what burning taste. 

251. They change the blue juices of vegeta- 
bles, such as that of red cabbage, to a green. 

252. When combined with oii and water, 
they render these two substances capable of be- 
ing mixed, or intimately blended with each o- 
ther. 

253. The two fixed alkalies, or those which 
cannot be evaporated or changed, without be- 
ing made red-hot, are called potash and soda* 

25-4-. The third alkali is called ammonia, ana 
it is also known by the name of tht; al- 

kali, because it becomes volatile or evaporated 
at the temperature of the atmosphere. 

255. The alkalies have hitherto been regard- 
ed as simple substances, but Mr. Davy, of 
the Royal Institution, has recently proved them 
to be composed of peculiar metals. 



OF ALKALIES. 73 

256. Potash is procured from the ashes of 
burnt wood, or other vegetables : hence it is 
called the vegetable alkali. 

257. It is also found in earths, and in the 
ores of metals, and it is imbibed by plants from 
the earth, while they are growing. 

258. Alkalies have a stronger affinity with 

acids than metals, so that, generally speaking, 

they will precipitate them from their acid men- 

struums. 

Experiment. Oxymuriate of mercury in solution, has 
the oxide of that metal, which is its base, precipitated 
of a bright brown colour, by the addition of potash. 

259. Soda is procured by burning sea-plants, 
or sea-weeds, as they are sometimes called : 
hence it is called the mineral alkali. 

260. Soda is the constituent principle in sea- 
salt, used at table, the chemical name of which 
is muriate of soda. 

261; Soda is found in the natron beds of 
Egypt, also in Syria, and in India, in large 
quantities combined with carbonic acid;' 

262. The uses to which potash and soda are 
applied, are nearly similar. 

illustration. They are used to melt along with siles, 
or pounded flint, in the formation of glass. In dyeing 
they are found to be of service in changing some vege- 
table colours, and in making others brighter. They are 
also used in washing and bleaching linen. When com- 
bined with oil or tallow, they form soap ; the greasy 
substance, when mixed with them, prevents them from 
burning or corroding the hands, which they would 
do in their separate state, 

G 



74 of alkalies; 

263; The potash of commerce is principally 
obtained from Russia and America; 

264. In the north of Scotland different kinds 
of sea-weed are employed, and furnish by a 
very rude process, an impure alkali named 
Kelp. The saline matter obtained from the 
same weeds in France and Spain, is termed 
barilla, and contains much more alkali than the 
kelp. 

265. Potash and soda may be obtained suf- 
ficiently pure for most chemical purposes, by 
mixing a strong solution of either of them with 
a quantity of quick -lime. The lime having a 
stronger affinity for the carbonic acid,with which 
the fixed alkalies is generally combined, unites to 
it and forms a carbonate of lime, which is pre- 
cipitated, while the potash or soda is held in 
solution, and may, by filtration be separated 
from it, and afterwards evaporated to dryness. 

266. When potash and soda are purified from 
foreign substances, they are called caustic alka- 
lies, and in this state if applied to the skin will 
almost instantly destroy it. 

267. Potash and soda are generally used in 
combination with carbonic acid. They are 
then carbonates, and from their corrosive pro- 
perties being neutralized, are termed mild al- 
kalies. 

268. Ammonia or volatile alkali has a strong 
and very pungent smell. It is caustic, but does 
not cQrrode animal matter like potash and 
soda. 



OF ALKALIES. 75 

269. Its most simple state is thatof ammonia- 
cal gas, or vapour, which is lighter than at- 
mospheric air, but not so light as hydrogen gas. 

Ex, I. To procure ammoniacal gas, mix one ounce 
of pounded sal ammoniac, with two ounces of quick- 
lime : put the mixture into a Florence flask, and apply 
a lighted lamp or candle to the bottom, and ammonia- 
cal gas will rise in abundance. 

2. Dissolve some sal ammoniac in water, and then 
heat the solution as above, when ammoniacal gas will 
also rise from the liquid ammonia. 

270. Ammonia is composed of two parts of 
hydrogen, to one of nitrogen or azote. 

271. All animal and vegetable substances 
furnish ammonia when in a state of putrefac- 
tion. 

272. It is procured in England by distilling 
or burning bones, horns, and other animal sub- 
stances, hence sal ammoniac is sometimes cal- 
led hartshorn. 

273. Sal ammonia, or muriate of ammonia, 
is formed by combining ammoniacal gas with 
the substance called muriatic acid gas. 

274. Sal ammoniac is used by dyers to give 
brightness to certain colours, and by braziers, 
tin-plate workers, &c. in scowering the sur- 
face of metals, previous to their being plated 
<s>r tinned. 



OF THE ACIDS. 

275. The acids are substances which pro- 
duce the taste of sourness, when applied to the 
tongue. 

276. Acids change the blue juices of vege- 
tables to a red. 

277. They combine with alkalies, earths, or 
metallic oxides, and form the compounds call- 
ed salts. 

278. They owe their origin to the combina- 
tion of oxygen, or the acidifying principle, with 
certain substances. 

279. This class of bodies has been some- 
times divided into mineral, vegetable and ani- 
mal acids, according to the substances from 
which they were supposed to be extracted. But 
as the same acid is sometimes found to exist in 
each of the kingdoms, a different mode of clas- 
sification has been adopted : the composition 
and nature of the acid when it will admit of 
it, being pointed out, instead of the class of bo- 
dies from which it is extracted. Thus sulphu- 
ric acid is so called because it is composed of 
sulphur and oxygen-— Carbonic acid because 
composed of carbon and oxygen, &c. 

280. In cases where the acid has a com- 
pound base from which the name could not rea- 
dily be derived, it is then generally taken from 
th> substance of which it is principally formed; 



OF AGIDS. T7 

as the gallic acid from galls ; the camphoric 
acid from camphor, &cc. 

281. Acids arise either from combustion or 
oxidation, and such bodies as form acids during 
these operations, are denominated acidifiable 
bases. 

Observation 1. If an acidifiable bases be perfectly sa- 
turated with oxygen, the acid, thus produced, is said 
to be perfect ; but if the bases predominate, the acid is 
said to be imperfect. 

2. Modern chemists distinguish the first state by the 
syllable ic, and the latter by ous. Thus we have the sul- 
phuric and the sulphurous acids, the phosphoric and 
phosphorous acids. Finally, if oxygen be combined with 
the acidifiable basis in so small a proportion that the 
compound body does not indicate any acid property, it 
is simply called an oxide. 

282. Sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, is pro- 
cured by burning sulphur, in contact with oxy- 
gen. 

283. The sulphuric acid is a very heavy and 
corrosive liquid. It is destitute of colour or 
smell, but has a very acid taste, 

284. When sulphuric acid is united with 
earths, metals, or alkalies, they are called sul- 
phates* 

Illustration. Lime, when dissolved in this acid, is 
sulphate of lime. Iron, in the same state, is called sul- 
phate of iron, and potash or soda, treated in a similar 
way, become sulphates of potash, &c. 

285. The sulphuric acid, in the state of gas, 
has a strong suffocating smell, but it is easily 

G % 



f8 GF ACIDS. 

absorbed by water, and then forms liquid sul- 
phurous or sulphuric acid. 

286. Muriatic acid is obtained by distilla- 
tion from sea salt. 

28? . In the state of gas, in which it is pro- 
cured, it has a pungent suffocating smell, but is 
easily absorbed by water, when it becomes li- 
quid muriatic acid. 

288. Muriatic acid has not as yet been de- 
composed, and it is therefore considered by 
some chemists, as a simple substance. 

289. When united with various substances, 
it forms the salts called muriates. 

Illustration. Common table -salt is called muriate of 
soda, because when decomposed, it is found to consist of 
soda and muriatic acid. By similar combinations, mu- 
riates of lime, £2*c. are formed. 

290. By the addition of oxygen to the mu- 
riatic acid it forms oxymuriatic acid. 

291. The gas produced from oxymuriatic 
acid is so suffocating, that it cannot be breathed 
without great injury. 

292. Oxymuriatic acid discharges or takes 
out vegetable colours : hence it is used in 
bleaching. 

Illustration. The following* process gives us an idea of 
the method by which bleaching is conducted upon a 
large scale. 

A chamber of lead (say six feet square and twelve 
feet high), is constructed, through the side the necks of 
the retorts containing the articles for distillation of the 
acid are introduced. The proportion of these arenas 
follow : 



OF ACIDS* 79 

Example- Take sixteen parts of sea-salt, and six of 
the oxide of manganese dry, and mix them well together: 
introduce them into the retort, which should be also of 
lead. Pour upor the mixture twelve parts of sulphu- 
ric acid, diluted with an equal quantity of water. At 
the first no extraneous heat need be applied, but we 
should apply a gentle heat towards the conclusion, and 
continue the distillation until the oxide of manganese 
has entirely lost its black colour. The goods to be> 
bleached may be hung upon a wooden frame, suspend- 
ed from the roof: the floor being at the same time 
covered with a layer of water, six inches deep, and to 
this water, lime, or potash may be also added, from •.»■ 

t0 i4o P art h y weight. 

Observation 1. The preventative to be used, consists 
chiefly in immersing the goods so frequently in the 
water, that they may be constantly kept moist : for it is 
observed, that if they once become dry during the ope- 
ration,they are infallibly destroyed by the powers of the 
decomposing acid. 

2. Lime is generally employed in lieu of potash, (a9 
the latter is comparatively an expensive article :) but 
great caution is necessary in its use. 

3. It should seem that the oxy muriate of lime is capa- 
ble of being employed in such operations, since the re- 
dundant oxygen is so feebly retained, that vegetable 
matter can rob it of it, and it is the combination of ve- 
getable matter, together with such oxygen, which -con- 
stitutes the foundation of the principle of bleaching. 

Experiment. When candles are made to burn in the 
oxygenized muriatic acid, they yield a reddish flame. 

Observation 1. Thus it should seem, that though in- 
capable of being breathed with impunity, animal and 
vegetable colours, putrid and contagious efliuvia, and 
actual inflammation or combustion are effected by the 
oxymuriatic acid. 

2. Its salts are decomposed, unless, cautiously evapo- 
rated in the absence of light. 

3. The French chemists first discovered that this 
acid gas was of the highest importance, not only in che- 



80 OF ACIDS. 

mistry, but as a medicinal agent, from its antisceptic 
powers, and its correcting vapours, and destroying the 
fcetor of places of which the soil is corrupted, as well as 
the air, which may be infected with septic miasmata. 

4. It may be added, therefore, that at the same time 
it destroys colour, it neutralizes scents, though itself 
possessed of what appears to the major-part of experi- 
mentors the most intolerable. 

5. The virus of various poisons is rendered completely 
inert by the powers of the oxymuriatic acid. This part of 
its uses has not been carried to the extent it deserves by 
medical artists, though the philosophical chemist knows 
of no truth more certain, than that such are its powers. 

JLxa?nple. By exposing its solution to intense cold, 
the oxymuriatic acid chrystallizes in plates. 

293. The gas obtained from this acid, oxi- 
dizes and burns several of the metals without 
the assistance of heat, 

Ex. 1. To obtain oxymuriatic acid gas, procure some 
manganese in powder; and pour upon it double its weight 
of muriatic acid, pour the mixture into the phial or re- 
tort, described in the apparatus, for obtaining oxygen 
gas. Connect the phial, by means of a tube, with the 
receiver on the shelf of the tube. The gas will imme- 
diately rise into the receiver, and if the heat of a lamp 
be applied to the bottom of the retort, containing the 
manganese and muriatic acid, the gas will be sent off in 
greater abundance. 

2. If the receiver, into which the oxymuriatic acid 
gas rises, be provided with an orifice and stopper at the 
top, introduce into the gas a piece of Dutch metal, or 
copper foil, it will instantly take fire, and will burn until 
the whole will be consumed, affording a very curious 
spectacle. 

3. Throw some bits of gold leaf, or some zinc, in pow- 
der, into a receiver, filled with this gas, and showers of 
fire will be produced, of very brilliant appearance. 



OF ACIDS. 81 

294. Nitric acid, (or aqua-fortis) is one of 
the constituent parts of nitre, or salt-petre. It 
is itself composed of oxygen and nitrogen. 

295. Nitric acid is clear and colourless, like 
\\ ater ; its smell is pungent, its taste exceeding- 
ly acid, its action on animal substances is cor- 
rosive, and it stains the skin yellow. 

296. Nitric acid oxidises, or dissolves most 
of the metals, and when united with them and 
other substances, forms the salts called nitrates. 

297. Nitro-muriatic acid (or aqua regia), is 
formed of two parts of nitric acid, to one of 
muriatic acid. It is the only acid which dis- 
solves gold. 

298. Carbonic acid is a combination of car- 
bon and oxygen. It is found in chalk, lime- 
stone, magnesia, &c. 

299. In the form of gas it unites slowly with 
water ; but by the assistance of agitation and 
pressure, the water may be impregnated with 
it in a very high degree, by which means it ac- 
quires an agreeable accidulous taste. 

Illustration. Carbonic acid gas is found in many natu- 
ral waters. Those of Pyrmont and Seltzer in Europe, 
and the Balls-town springs in the state of New -York 
are highly impregnated with it. The artificial mineral 
waters of Philadelphia are composed of common water 
and carbonic acid gas, with the addition of such saits as 
are found in the waters composing the different springs 
which are intended to be imitated. 

300. Carbonic acid enters into combination 
with the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides. 



82 OF ACIDS* 

301. When combined with metals, they are 
then called carbonates. 

302. Phosphoric acid is compounded of phos- 
phorus and oxygen. It is procured chiefly 
from bones, by distillation. The earthy sub- 
stance, which remains after the oil and jelly 
they contain is separated from them, is phos- 
phoric acid, mixed with lime. 

303. Phosphoric acid, when deprived of wa- 
ter, is solid and transparent, when liquid it is 
of a thick oily appearance. 

304. Fluoric acid is found in Derbyshire or 
fluor spar, which is compounded of fluoric acid 

and lime. 

305. Fluoric acid has the property of dis- 
solving glass, and is used for the purpose of 
engraving or etching on that substance. 

Ex, 1. To obtain fluoric acid, pound some Derbyshire 
spar, and pour over it an equal quantity of sulphuric 
acid. A gas will be immediately liberated, which may 
be received into a vessel, containing' a small quantity of 
water ; the water will absorb the gas as it rises, and 
fluoric acid will be the consequence. The vessels used 
; in this experiment, should be of lead, as the glass appa- 
ratus, formerly described, would soon be corroded or 
dissolved by the acid. 

2. If the glass apparatus is used in obtaining fluoric 
acid, and no water is put into the receiver, the following 
amusiag experiment maybe made. Put a dead fly, or 
other small animal, into the receiver, into which the gas 
rises ; in a few minutes the natural moisture will absorb 
fluoric acid; the silex contained in the glass, will be 
dissolved and precipitated upon the animal, which will 
then be a petrefaction, or an animal covered with stone. 



OF ACIDS. 83 

3, Cover a piece of glass with a thin coating* of wax, 
and then trace a drawing of any description, with a 
proper instrument, through the wax into the glass. Put 
this piece of glass into the receiver of an aparatus of 
lead, and apply the gas of the fluoric acid as above de- 
scribed, when the part of the glass exposed to it, will 
be corroded so as to exhibit every feature of the draw- 
ing. 

306. Boracic acid is composed of the sub- 
stance called borax and oxygen. Its properties 
are little known, and it is not much in use. 

307. Arsenic acid, tungstic acid, molybdic 
acid, and chromic acid., are combinations with 
various metallic oxides, but their properties 
have not as yet been clearly ascertained. 

308. Acetous acid, or vinegar, is obtained by 
exposing liquors, such as wine, malt-liquors, 
&c. which have undergone fermentation, to the 
open air. By this means they imbibe oxygen, 
or the acidifying principle. 

309. Acetous acid, as usully prepared, is a 
yellowish liquid. When it is distilled it is as 
clear as water, and more acid ; it is then known 
by the name of distilled vinegar. 

310. Acetic acid is merely acetous acid, 
brought to a higher degree of acidity, or con- 
centration. 

311. Acetic acid enters into combination with 
the alkalies and metals, and forms, with them, 
the substances called acetates. 

Illustration. In chemistry, the acetates of copper, 
of lead, of soda, and of potash, are compounds of this 
description. 



84 01? ACIDS. 

312. Acetic acid, when highly concentrated, 
is pungent and acrid, and corrodes animal sub- 
stances. 

313. Oxalic acid is found in abundance in 
the juice of sorrel, from which it derives its 
name. When pure it is then in the form of 
small white chrystals, of an agreeable taste. It 
may also be artificially procured from sugar 
and the nitric acid. 

Experiment. In the distillation of sugar with the nitric 
acid, the peculiar acid of sugar, or the oxalic acid is 
separated. 

314. Oxalic acid also exists in chickpease, 
sugar, and other vegetable substances, and is 
also found in great abundance in wool. 

315. Oxalic acid is used by the calico-prin- 
ters, in dissolving the metallic oxides, and other 
substances, for the sake of colours. 

3 16. It is also used for taking out iron moulds 
from linen, which it is enabled to do, by its dis- 
solving the iron. 

317. Tartar ous acid. The cream of tartar in 
the shops, is composed of the tartarous acid and 
potash. When this acid is obtained pure, it 
appears like the last, in the form of white chrys- 
tals. 

318. The cream of tartar is obtained in all 
vessels where wine has been kept, and especial- 
ly port-wine. 

Experiment 1. The tartarous acid is procured by 
mixing the tartar with chalk, or lime, which imbibes the 
superfluous acid. 



OF ACIDS.. 85 

2. Or it may be procured by boiling the tartar with 
five or six times its weight of water, and then adding 
to it the sulphuric acid. This unites with the vegetable 
alkali, and forms vitriolated tartar, or (properly speak- 
ing) the sulphate of potash ; and the pure acid of tartar 
may be obtained in chrystals by evaporation and filtra- 
tion, equal in weight to half the cream of tartar employ- 
ed. This acid of tartar is more soluble in water than 
the cream of tartar. 

319. Citric acid, or lemon juice, is found in 
the juice of lemons, and several other fruits. It 
is used in medicine to counteract the effects of 
opium, and similar poisons. 

Illustration. If a person who has taken opium or laud- 
anum, be made to swallow large quantities of lemon - 
juice, until vomiting is produced, the deadly effects of 
the poison will entirely cease. 

Experime?it 9 Buffs, and other colours, are discharged 
by the citric acid, upon which principle it is, that cali- 
coes, with a dark ground, have white stars, or other 
dnaments, formed upon them, by means of proper 
blocks, charged with citric acid, and printed after the 
usual manner. This effect is termed discharging, 

320. Malic acid is obtained from the juice 
of apples, strawberries, and other fruits. It is 
a reddish coloured, and very sour fluid. 

321. Malic acid is only used in chemistry, by 
way of a test, or in order to discover the presence 
of certain substances, or to separate two sub- 
stances that are closelycombined with each other, 

Illustration. The two simple earths, alumine and mag- 
nesia, are generally found minutely combined with each 
other. Pour some malic acid upon this substance, and 
the alumine will unite with the acid, and fall to the bot- 
tom, or be precipitated. The magnesia will then remain 
H 



86 OF AG IBS. 

suspended or dissolved in the remaining fluid, an<J in 
this state it is called malate of magnesia. 

322. Lactic acid is procured from milk. It 
is in fact the whey of milk, when become sour. 

323. Gallic acid is found in the galls, used in 
commerce, in oak-bark, and other vegetables. 

324. Gallic acid has the property of preci- 
pitating 4 iron of a black colour, when iron is 
dissolved by any of the acids, for which reason 
it is employed in making ink. 

Illustration. Common writing ink is made by mixing 
galls soaked in water, or an infusion of galls with cop- 
peras, which is a sulphate of iron — Copperas which has 
been exposed to the air is always composed of a green 
and a red sulphate. The last of these is forjned from 
the green sulphate, by the metal receiving a higher de- 
gree of oxidation by exposure to the air. And it is this 
red sulphate combined with the gallic acid, that forms 
common writing ink, or a gallate of iron. 

325. Mucous or saccho lactic acid, is obtained 
from gum arabic, and other mucilaginous sub- 
stances. It has not been as yet applied to any 
useful purpose. 

326. Benzoic acid is prepared from the sub- 
stance called Benzoin, or gum Benjamin. This 
acid is used in medicine by the name of flowers 
of Benjamin. 

327. Succinic acid is prepared from amber, 
a transparent combustible substance dug out of 
the earth, which is used for making beads, and 
other ornaments. 

Illustration Succinic acid is obtained by putting equal 
parts of dry sand, and powdered amber, into a stone or 



OF SALTS. 87 

metal retort, and making it red-hot, the acid then rises 
into the neck of the retort, in the form of shining 1 white 
chrystals. 

328. Camphoric acid is obtained from cam- 
phor, a white cristaliine substance, obtained in 
the East Indies, from a kind of laural tree. 

329. Prussic acid is composed of hydrogen, 
nitrogen, and carbon. It is a colourless liquid, 
like water, and has a sweet taste. 

330. It is prepared from blood, and other 
animal substances, and when united with iron, 
it forms the colouring substance called Prussian 
blue, used in dying. 

331. Sebacic acid is procured from animal 
fat, or tallow. It has an acid, sharp, and bit- 
terish taste. 



OF SALTS. 

332. When an acid is combined with an al- 
kali, an earth, or a metallic oxide, it forms what 
is called a salt. 

333. When the quantities of the acid, and 
of the other substance are equal, the combina- 
tion is called a neutral salt. 

334. All salts, which are compounds of me- 
tallic oxides, earth, or alkalies, with the sulphu- 
ric acid, are called sidphates. 

335. When the muriatic acid is in combina- 
tion with an earth, an alkali, or a metallic oxide, 
the compound is called a muriate. 



88 OF SALTS. 

336. When the same thing happens with the 
nitric acid, the compounds are called nitrates. 

337. Carbonic acid, combined with earths^ 
alkalies, or metals, forms carbonates. 

Illustration 1. The saline compound, commonly known 
by the name of Glauber's salts, is sulphate of soda, be- 
ing a combination of sulphuric acid and soda. 

2. Plaster of Paris, or gypsum, is called sulphate of 
lime, from being composed of sulphuric acid, and lime. 

3. Green copperas is sulphate of iron, being compound- 
ed of sulphuric acid and iron ; not of copper, as formerly 
supposed. 

4. Common salt is muriate of soda, being composed 
of muriatic acid and soda. 

5. Salt-petre is nitrate of potash, being composed of 
potash and nitric acid. 

6. Chalk is carbonate of lime, from being formed of 
carbonic acid and lime. 

338. When a salt is found to contain more 
of the acid than of the other substance combin- 
ed with it, the word super is affixed to it. 

Illustration. When chalk has more carbonic acid than 
lime, in its combination, it is called super-carbonate of 
lime. 

339. When the alkali, earth, or metal, com- 
bined with an acid, exceeds the acid in quantity, 
the word sub is affixed to it. 

Illustration. If the sulphuric acid is less than the iron 
in sulphate of iron, it is called subsuiphate of iron. 

Observation 1. Another variety of salts is produced by 
the union of an acid with two bases, which are called 
triple salts, and take the name of both bases, as prus- 
siate of potash and iron, tartrate of potash and soda, &c. 

2. Those metallic salts, the bases of which contain an 



OP SALTS. 89 

excess of oxygen, are distinguished by the abbreviation 
exy, as oxysulphate of iron. The same adjunct is also 
used, when the acid of salt contains an excess of oxygen, 
as oxymuriate of potash. 

340. All salts, composed of acids, ending in 
qus, take a termination in ife, instead of ate* 

Illustration, Lime, combined with phosphorous acid s 
is called phosphite of lime, whereas, when combined with 
the stronger or phosphoric acid, it is called phosphate 
of lime. 

341. The sulphates have a bitter taste : those 
which are most familiar, are the sulphate of 
lime, or plaster of Paris, and the sulphate of 
alumine or alum. 

Illustration. Sulphate of lime is found in abundance in 
Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and many other places of 
England. The hills around Paris are almost entirely 
composed of it, hence it is called plaster of Paris. 
When burnt or calcined, and pounded, it maybe mixed 
with water, for which it has so great an affinity, that it 
becomes solid almost immediately. It is therefore used 
in making Mists, cornices, &c. 

2. Sulphate of alumine or alum. It is found in pits in 
great abundance, near Glasgow, in Scotland, and at 
Whitby in England. It is found mixed with earths, 
which are precipitated from it, by water being added in 
abundance. The alum is dissolved by the water, and 
the solution being drained oif from the earthy matter, 
soon crystallizes or concretes into what is called rock 
alum. 

342. The sulphites, or sulphurous salts, have 
always a disagreeable sulphurous taste : when 
exposed to fire they yield sulphur, and become 
sulphates. 

h 2 



90 OF SALTS. 

343. The sulphites are seldom applied in 
chemistry, or the arts, to any useful purpose. 

344. The muriates, when mixed with strong 
sulphuric acid, yield muriatic acid in the form 
of a visible vapour : when nitric acid is poured 
upon them, they yield oxymuriatic acid gas. 

Ex.-l. Put a handful of common salt (muriate of soda,) 
into the glass bottle or retort of the pneumatic appara- 
tus : drop gently in*o it some strong or concentrated 
sulphuric acid : fix the retort to the receiver, and a thick 
white vapour will be seen to rise from the mixture. 
This is muriatic acid, and if a little water is introduced 
into the receiver, previous to the operation, the water 
will be impregnated with the acid, and form liquid mu- 
riatic acid. 

2. If nitric acid be used instead of the sulphuric acid, 
oxymuriatic acid gas will be formed. 

345. The muriates are the most volatile and 
and yet the least decomposable by fire, of all 
the salts. 

Illustration. Put some common salt into an earthen 
retort, and having fixed a receiver to it, make the retort 
red-hot, by inserting it into s strong fire. The salt will 
be volatilized, that is, it will rise into the receiver, but 
it will still be unaltered, and will still remain common 
salt. 

346. The chief muriatic salts are the mu- 
riates of potash, of soda, (common salt) of lime, 
and of ammonia, (sal ammoniac). 

Observation 1. Muriate of barytes is used as a test of 
the presence of sulphuric acid. It is poisonous even in 
small quantities. It is also used in the preparation of 
pure muriatic acid. 

2. Muriate of soda has great uses in the arts, 8cc. as 
furnishing to chemistry both the muriatic acid, and soda. 
Its uses as a preservative are well known. 



OF SALTS. 91 

347. The nitrates are remarkable for yield- 
ing oxygen gas, mingled with nitrogen gas, 
when heat is applied to them. 

348. When concentrated sulphuric acid is 
poured upon them, they yield nitric acid, in 
white vapour. 

349. The nitrate which is most familiar to 
us is nitrate of potash, commonly called nitre, 
or salt-petre. 

350. The carbonates are known by giving 
out carbonic acid, when the sulphuric or nitric 
acid is poured upon them. 

351. Carbonate of lime, or common chalk, 
is the most common of these salts. 

352. The phosphates may be melted either 
into an opaque, or into transparent substances 
called glass of phosphorus. 

353. The most common phosphoric salts, 
are phosphate of lime, a white tasteless sub- 
stance, which is found in a native state in many 
parts of the world. 

354. Phosphate of lime is found in bones, 
milk, and several other animal matters : it is 
also abundant in wheat. 

355. The filiates are remarkable for forming 
the fluoric acid, which corrodes or dissolves 
silex. 

356. The most common are fluates of lime, 
of soda, of ammonia, of alumine, and of silex. 

357. The fluate of lime enters into the com- 
position of Derbyshire spar. It also exists in 



92 OF SALTS. 

the human teeth, forming the enamel, which 
defends them from decay. 

358. The acetates are the combinations of 
certain substances, with the acetic acid. They 
are distinguished from most other salts, by be- 
ing easily dissolved in water. 

359. The chief acetic salts, are the acetates 
of barytes, of potash, of soda, of lime, of am- 
monia, and of magnesia. 

360. The acetate, with which we are most 
familiar, is acetate of lead, or sugar of lead. 

Illustration. To make acetate of lead, procure some 
-common white-lead, and dissolve it in acetous acid, (dis- 
tilled vinegar): apply heat to the solution, and the water 
of the acetous acid will fly off in vapour, leaving acetate 
of lead in the form of minute chrystals. 

361. The tartrates are combinations of sub- 
stances with tartaric acid. The tartrate of 
lime is most common, and it is found in the 
common tartar used in commerce. 

362. The pmssiates are formed by combi- 
nations of the prussic acid, with potash and 
soda. These are called alkaline prussiates. 

363. There are also triple prussiates, which 
are best known from being used in dyeing, by 
the name of Prussian blue. 

364. The triple prussiates are composed of 
Prussic acid and iron, combined with potash, 
soda, lime, or ammonia. 



93 



OF OXIDES. 

365 The simple substances, when united to 
a less quantity of oxygen than is necessary to 
form acids, are called oxi'des. 

366. Metals, earths, and vegetables, furnish 
substances which may be converted into oxides, 
by a union with oxygen. 

367* Most of the metals become oxides by 
exposure to the atmospheric air. They also take 
oxygen by lying in water, or in the acids, both 
of which substances are decomposed or robbed 
of their oxygen, by their union with metals. 

Illustration 1. Gold, silver, and platina, are not oxi- 
dized or rusted in the open air, but they become so when 
an acid is applied to them, or when highly heated, be- 
cause their particles are then expanded, and can more 
readily admit of the oxygen. 

2. Iron, copper, and lead, become oxidized upon ex- 
posure to the air for a iew days. Manganese will be- 
come a perfect oxide after being a few hours in the 
open air. 

368. The metals have different degrees of 
affinity for oxygen ; some being more easily ox- 
idized than others, will reduce an oxide to its 
metallic form, when brought in contact with it. 

Illustration 1. Zinc, by its powerful attraction for oxy- 
gen, decomposes a great number of salts and metallic 
solutions, and precipitates the metal from them, either 
in a metallic form, or less oxidised than they were before. 

2. Upon this principle, the pin manufacturers whiten 
their pins. They fill a pan with alternate layers of pins 



94 OF OXIDES. 

and grain tin, upon which they pour a solution of tartrit 
of potash, (tartarous acid and potash) and boii the whole 
four or five hours. The tartaric acid dissolves the tin, 
and gradually deposits it on the surface of the pins, in 
consequence of its greater affinity tor zinc, which enters 
into the brass wire, of which the pins are made. 

369. Metallic oxides are generally in pow- 
der ; with the acids they form the metallic salts, 
and they are heavier than the primitive metaL. 

370. No metal is capable of being dissolved 
in the acid until it is combined with a specific 
degree of oxygen. 

Illustration. If a ro.eral has more than the specific de- 
gree of oxygen, it will fall to the bottom in a solution, 
Instead of being dissolved, and forming a metallic salt. 

371. Sulphur, phosphorus, hydrogen, carbon, 
and nitrogen, have their oxides, as well as the 
metals. 

372. Sulphur becomes oxide of sulphur, by 
being kept in a melted state in the open air un- 
til it becomes of a red colour. With a greater 
portion of oxygen, it becomes sulphuric acid. 

373. Phosphorus, when exposed to a small 
portion of air, becomes first white, and then 
dark brown. In this state it is oxide of phos- 
phorus ; with a greater quantity of oxygen, it 
is phosphoric acid. 

374. Hydrogen enters into combination with 
oxygen in one degree only, and forms water, 
which is strictly speaking, an oxide of hydro- 
gen. 

575. Nitrogen, and a certain portion of oxy- 



of Combustion* 95 

gen, forms nitrous oxide, a further portion 
makes it nitric oxide* 

376. Nitrons oxide is procured by exposing 
nitrate of ammonia in a retort, to the heat of 
a lamp, until red-hot. The oxide then rises in 
the form of gas. 

377. Nitrous oxide supports combustion bet- 
ter than atmospheric air. When breathed into 
the lungs, it communicates a pleasurable or in- 
toxicating sensation. 

378. Nitric oxide, or nitrous gas, is procured 
by gently heating copper or mercury in diluted 
nitrous acid, and collecting the gas, which rises 
during the operation. 

379. Nitrous gas suffocates animals which 
breathe it, and it is heavier than common air. 

380. When in contact with oxygen gas, ni- 
trous gas forms nitric acid, or aquafortis, 
which owes its yellow colour to the nitrous gas. 

381. Most animal and vegetable substances 
are capable of becoming oxides. 

Illustration. The red part of "the blood is an oxide. 
Sugar is a vegetable oxide. Oils, butter, and the flesh 
of animals, become rancid by the absorption of oxygen, 



OF COMBUSTION. 

382. Combustion, or burning, is that process 
by which combustible bodies absorb oxygen., 
and suffer the caloric it contains to escape as 
heat. 



96 OF COMBUSTION. 

Illustration. Oxygen exists in the state of gas in the 
atmospheric air ; when a combustible is heated to a cer- 
tain degree, it possesses such an attraction for oxygen, 
that it absorbs it from the air, while the caloric, which 
gave it the gaseous form,escapes or diffuses itself among 
the surrounding bodies, occasioning heat, or warmth. 

383. Some bodies are combustible, others 
incombustible. 

Illustration- The term combustible is applied to every 
body capable of being burnt in atmospheric air, or in 
oxygen gas, and consequently of uniting with oxygen. 

384. Those combustible substances which 
have resisted every attempt to decompose them, 
are called simple combustibles. 

385. Hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and car- 
bon are simple combustibles. To these might 
be added all the metals ; for they also are com- 
bustible and have not yet been decomposed. 
But from their possessing properties peculiar 
to themselves they have not generally been 
ranked among this class of bodies. 

Ex. To prove that metals may actually be burnt, and 
give out light and heat, twist a small piece of iron wire 
into the form of a corkscrew, by roiling it round a small 
stick. Fix one end of it into a cork (previously made to 
lit a glass jar, filled with oxygen gas) and lap round the 
other end some cotton thread, dipped in melted wax or 
tallow. Set fire to the cotton thread, and immediately 
plunge the wire into the jar of oxygen gas. The wire 
will take fire from the cotton, and burn with great bril- 
liancy, throwing out sparks in all directions. During the 
combustion, the iron combines w T ith the oxygen in the jar 
and an oxide of iron is formed, which will be found to be 
one-third heavier than the original piece of wire. 



OF COMBUSTION 97 

386. Compound combustibles are such bo- 
dies as are formed by the union of two or more 
of the simple combustibles. 

Illustration. Common coal, bitumens, oils, and resin, 
being" compounded of hydrogen, carbon, and others of 
the simple combustibles, are compound combustibles. 

387. There are thirteen incombustible sub- 
stances, nitrogen, the three alkalies, and the 
nine earths. 

388. Certain substances are called suppor- 
ters of combustion ; these are not combustible 
of themselves, but they are necessary to the 
process of combustion, which cannot take place 
without their presence. 

389. The supporters of combustion are six, 
namely, oxygen gas, atmospheric air, nitrous 
oxide, nitric acid, and oxygenized muriatic 
acid. 

Illustration 1. If a bladder be filled with oxygen gas, 
and a stream of the gas forced through a piece of tobac- 
co pipe, upon a piece of red hot charcoal, the combus- 
tion will be so much increased, that the light thrown off 
will be too strong 1 for the eyes to endure. 

2. If nitrous acid (aquafortis) be mixed with about 
half its weight of sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol) and 
poured into oil of turpentine, the whole will imme- 
diately burst into flame- In this experiment the oxygen 
of the nitrous acid, promotes the combustion. 

390. It is the principle of oxygen alone that 
gives to these bodies the character of suppor- 
ters of cumbustion. 

391. The heat produced by combustion, is 



98 OF WATER, 

derived from the oxygen gas of the atmos- 
phere. 

Illustration. When we kindle a fire with wood or coals 
in order to procure heat, a continual stream of atmos- 
pheric air flows towards the fire place, to occupy the 
vacancy left by the air that has been decomposed or rob* 
bed of its oxygen. Every fresh portion of air, as it* ar- 
rives at the fire place, is in its turn decomposed also. 
Hence a continual supply of caloric or heat is furnished 
without intermission until the whole of the combustible 
is saturated with oxygen. As the wood or coal burns, 
light as well as heat is disengaged. The carbon of the 
wood or coal unites to the oxygen of the acid and forms 
carbonic acid gas, while another portion of the oxygen 
unites t© the hydrogen and forms water. When the 
combustion is over, the earthy parts only of the com- 
bustible remains. 

392. No combustible body can bum without 
atmospheric air, or rather without oxygen, 
which is a component part of the atmospheric 
air. 

Illustration. Place a lighted candle under a glass jar, 
inverted over a plate full of water ; the candle will be 
gradually extinguished, as it absorbs the oxygen con- 
tained in the air of the jar. 

393. The greater the quantity of oxygen gas 
which any body is capable of absorbing or de- 
composing, the greater will be the heat produ- 
ced. 

394. When a body is changed into an oxide 
by combustion, it is said to be oxidized ; but 
w T hen changed into an acid, the term oxygeni- 
zed is vised. 

395. No part of a substance is destroyed or 



OF WATER $§ 

annihilated by combustion, the component parts 
are merely separated from each other, to form 
new and various combinations. 



OF WATER. 

396. Water is a compound of fifteen parts by 
weight of hydrogen, and eighty-five of oxygen, 
in every one hundred parts. 

397. Water is decomposed or separated into 
its constituent parts, by several operations of 
nature. 

Illustration. All living vegetables have the power of 
decomposing water, by a secret operation peculiar to 
theisselves. They combine a part of the hydrogen and 
oxygen of the water vvith the carbon of the atmosphere 
and of the soil, to form vegetable oils, wax, guns, resin^ 
sugar, &c. while the superfluous oxygen is given off by 
the leaves. 

398. Water may also be decomposed, and 
again formed by artificial and chemical means. 

Illustration, If an empty jar be held over the flame 
emitted from hydrogen gas, when burning, (as described 
under the article hydrogen) the hydrogen emitted will 
combine with the oxygen of the atmospheric sir, and 
water will be formed, which will be deposited in drops 
within the sides of the jar. 

399. Hydrogen is constantly emanating from 
every animal and vegetable substance, in a 
state of decay or putrefaction. It is emitted 
from various mines and volcanoes. 

400. Water takes a solid form in the state of 



100 OF MINERAL WATERS* 

ice, and when combined with lime, marble and 
other substances. 

401. Spring water, although the clearest and 
most inviting to look at, is frequently more un- 
fit for common use than any other. It be- 
comes pure or polluted in proportion asthe 
earth through which it passes is less or more 
impregnated with saline or metallic substances. 

That water in general ought to be preferred 
which sits lightest on the stomach ; is fresh, 
lively and agreeable to the taste ; that which 
boils pease and pulse quickest, and mixes rea- 
dily with soap without curdling. 



OF MINERAL WATERS. 

402. When water contains such an excess of 
any foreign substance, that it cannot be used 
for domestic purposes, it is called mineral 
-water. 

403. The acids, the alkalies^ and the salts, 
are the three classes of substances which unite 
with water in forming mineral waters. 

404. Carbonic acid is most frequently com- 
bined with water, to which it gives a briskness^ 
resembling that ^f a fermenting liquor. 

405. ^ulphanuis acid is found combined 
with waters In the vicinity of volcanoes, and 
in all hot springs, which are then called sulphu- 
rous waters. 



OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 101 

406. The only alkali which has been obser- 
ved in mineral waters uncombined is soda, and 
the only earthy bodies are silex and lime. 

40". The neutral salts are most frequently 
to be met with in mineral waters. 

408. Sulphate of lime, of soda, and of mag- 
nesia, (of sulphuric acid, united with these 
substances) are neutral salts found in mineral 
waters. 

409. Sulphate of magnesia is the medi^ 
cine, known by the name of Epsom salts, and 
is found in great abundance in the mineral 
springs near Epsom. 

410. The muriates are more common in 
water, than any other of the salts. 

OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 

411. The principal substances which enter 
into the composition of vegetables are carbon, 
hydrogen and oxygen. 

412. Sugar is the most frequent ingredient 
met with in vegetables. 

Illustration. It is contained in most abundance in the 
sugar-cane and sugar-maple. Beet-root, carrots, turnips, - 
and most kinds of grain, also contain sugar in abundance. 

413. Gum, or mucilage, is also found in 
abundance in vegetables. 

414. Gum arabic, and cherry-tree gum, are 
most used in chemistry. They are oozed out 
from trees, by the heat of the sun. 

i 2 



102 OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 

415. Jelly is also an ingredient in vegeta- 
bles. It is generally procured from the juices 
of blackberries and other fruits. 

416. Tan, or tannin, is very abundant in 
the bark of most vegetables, particularly the 
oak. 

41 T. It is remarkable for stringency/ and it 
has a bitter taste. 

Illustration. The most important property in tan is in 
forming- the substance called leather. When applied to 
the skin of an animal, (which is called gelatine, or glue, 
in chemistry) a new, and insoluble compound, or leather, 
is formed. 

418. 'The bitter principle is another consti- 
tuent part of vegetables. It is most conspicu- 
ous in hops, quassia, &c. 

419. Opium, or the narcotic principle, is al- 
so contained in many plants. 

Illustration. This substance abounds in white poppies, 
and in plants which exhibit a milky juice, when their stalks 
are broken, such as garden lettuce, dandelion, &c. This 
milky juice, when exposed to the sun, becomes of a dark 
colour, and concretes into opium. 

420. Gluten and Starch form the essential 
parts of the flour, made from wheat, barley, 
potatoes, &c. 

Ex. To obtain gluten and starch, moisten any quantity 
of wheat flour with water, and knead it into a tough 
paste. Let a small stream of water keep dropping upon 
tiiis paste while it is constantly worked up with the hands. 
The water wilt at first run off white and turbid, owing to 
the starch which it contains ; but when it runs oil quite 
clear, nothing is left in the hands but a tough stringy sub- 



OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 103 

stance, which, when dried, resembles glue or horn, and 
is pure gluten. Starch is made by heating the mixture 
which "has run off* from the gluten, until the water is 
evaporated, and dry starch remains. 

421. Wax is collected by bees from the 
leaves of the trees and plants. It is not altered 
in its nature by these animals. 

422. Resin, like gum, exudes from most 
trees, particularly from firs. 

423. The substances known by the names of 
balsams, varnishes, turpentine, rosin, tar, and 
pitch, are all resins. They are obtained from 
trees, by operations peculiar to the manufac- 
ture of each. 

424. Caoutchouc, or Indian rubber, is a mil- 
ky gum, which exudes from certain trees in 
South America : upon being exposed to the 
air, it hardens into the consistence in which 
we see it in this country. 

425. Cork is the bark of a species of the oak* 
It is called in chemistry suber. 

426. Camphor is a white concrete substance, 
found in several vegetables* but is most abun- 
dant in a particular tree in the East Indies. 

427. It is highly inflammable, and will even 
burn on the surface of water, on which it floats. 

428. Camphor has a pungent smell, and 
sharp taste. It is used in medicine. 

429. Vegetables contain oils in great abun- 
dance. These exist in two states, called fixed 
oil, and volatile or essential oil. 

430. Vegetable fixed oil is obtained by 



104 OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 

squeezing or pressing the seeds and kernels of 
most vegetables, or by keeping them for some 
time in hot water, when their oil rises to the 
surface. 

Illustration. Olive oil, oil of almonds, linseed oil, &c. 
are obtained by bruising these several productions, in 
machinery made for the purpose. 

431. Essential, or volatile oil, is what is 
Commonly called an essence. 

Illustration Essences are generally obtained by distil- 
ling plants, the peculiar smell of which they retain, as oil 
of peppermint, oil of lavender, oil of turpentine, &.c. 
These are also called spirits of lavender, Stc. 

432. Volatile oil is distinguished from fixed 
oil, by its leaving no greasy spot or stain on 
linen or paper, when dropped upon it. 

433. The essential oils affect the tongue with 
a sensation of heat and bitterness, and they 
are highly inflammable. 

Illustration. Squeeze the skin of an orange or lemon 
near the flame of a candle ; the essential oil will fly out 
and burn with a bright white flame. By simply rubbing 
a lump of sugar against the skin of an orange, the sugar 
will imbibe this essential oil. 



OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 

434. The simple bodies, of which animal 
substances are compounded, are carbon, hydro- 
gen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, 
. and lime. 



OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES* 105 

435. Gelatine, or glue, is the most common 
compound ingredient found in animal substan- 
ces. 

436. It is the principal part of the skin and 
flesh of animals. Blood and milk always con- 
tain it, and it is also found in bones, horns, and 
hair. 

Illustration. The process of making jelly from calves* 
feet, and the substance called isinglass, by boiling' the 
skins of fishes, are familiar instances of the production 
of gelatine. When the soup or jelly made by boiling 
beef, &c. becomes hard and dry, from the water being 
evaporated from it, it is called portable soup, and is a 
real glue. The common glue, used by workmen, is 
made by boiling down the parings of skins, and the re- 
fuse of the tanners and leather dressers. 

437. Albumen is the name given by chemists 
to the white of an egg, in which it is combined 
with sulphur and soda. 

Illustration* Silver spoons, used in eating eggs, are 
blackened from the sulphur contained in the albumen 
adhering to the silver. 

438. Albumen constitutes the serum or jelly- 
like substance of the blood. When dried, it 
becomes a brittle semi-transparent substance, 
like horn. 

439. Sugar is found in the milk of animals, 
and is in all respects similar to the sugar ob- 
tained from vegetables. 

440. The oils found in animals, consist of 
fat or tallow, spermaceti, train, or fish oil, and 
butter. 

441. Spermaceti differs from the other ani~ 



t06 OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 

mal oils, in being found in a concrete or crys- 
tallized state, in the brain of the Spermaceti 
whale, 

442. The oils obtained from fishes are fluid at 
the temperature of the atmosphere, while the 
oils of land animals concrete into the substance 
called fat or tallow. 

443. Phosphorus abounds in animal sub- 
stances. 

Illustration. Phosphorus exhales copiously from putrid 
fish, in the state of phosphuretted hydrogen gas, spon- 
taneously emitting' light in the dark. 

444. The bones of animals are composed of 
phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, and gela- 
tine. 

445. The clot, or thick part formed in blood, 
when taken from an animal body, is albumen, 
gelatine, and oxide of iron, which gives it the 
red colour. 

446. The serum, or watery part, is composed 
of albumen, and gelatine, mixed with muriate 
and carbonate of soda and phosphate of lime. 

447. The curd, formed in the milk of ani- 
mals, is albumen, and the whey consists of 
serum and sugar. 

448. Milk also contains an animal oil in great 
abundance, which is separated from it by agi- 
tation, and concretes into butter. 



107 

OF FERMENTATION. 

449. Fermentation is a change which takes 
place in vegetable matters, containing sugar and 
mucilage, mixed with hike warm water. 

Illustration 1. The fermentation of this description of 
vegetables is called the vinous fermentation, because in 
this way, wines, as well as beer and cider, are prepared. 

2. In the vinous fermentation, an intestine motion or 
agitation takes place in the fluid, it becomes thick and 
muddy* and the heat increases. Carbonic acid gas is 
sent off from the liquor, and the fermentation ceases, by 
the thick part falling to the bottom. The liquor has 
then lost its sweet taste, and it is found to contain a 
quantity of spirits or alcohol, which may be separated 
from it by distillation. 

450. The acetous fermentation takes place 
when any vinous or spiritous fluid, such as wine 
or beer, is exposed to the air, from which it 
absorbs oxygen, and becomes vinegar. 

451. Putrefaction is also a process of fer- 
mentation, peculiar both to animal and vegeta- 
ble substances. 

Illustration. Ammonia, which is composed of nitrogen 
and hydrogen, is always the result of putrefaction. In. 
putrefaction therefore there is a total decomposition, or 
dissolution of the parts of the animal or vegetable sub- 
stance, and entire new products are formed. 



EXPERIMENTS 

ILLUSTRATING THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF 

CHEMISTRY. 



No. 1. TAKE a small phial about half full of cold 
water ; grasp it gently in the left hand, and from 
another phial pour a little sulphuric acid or oil of vi- 
triol, drop by drop, into the water. A strong sensa- 
tion of heat will immediately be perceived. This, by , 
the addition of more acid, may be increased to many 
degrees beyond that of boiling water. 

2. Take a small phial in one hand, containing some 
sal ammoniac (pulverized muriate of ammonia ;) pour 
a little water upon it, and shake the mixture. In this 
instance a sensation of cold will immediately be felt. 

3. Into a tea-cup placed upon a hearth, and con- I 
taining about a table spoon full of oil of turpentine, 
pour about half the quantity of strong nitrous acid 
(aquafortis) previously mixed with a few drops of sul- 
phuric acid. The moment the acids come in contact 
with the turpentine, ilame will be produced. In this 
experiment the acids must be mixed in a phial, tied to 
the end of a stick, and at arm's length pour its con- 
tents into the oil ; as the sudden combustion sometimes 
occasions a part of the liquids to be thrown out of the 
vessel. 

4. Put an ounce or tw T o of the black oxide of manga 
nese into a small glass retort, pour a little sulphuric 
acid upon it, and apply heat. Oxygen gas will be dis^ 
engaged. 

5. Into a small glass retort put a mixture of two 
parts cf quick-lime and one of sal ammoniac (muriate 



EXPERIMENTS. 109 

of ammonia) both in powder. Apply heat, and am- 
moniacal gass will come over. i 

6. Convey some muriatic acid gas into a glass jar 
containing a portion of the gas produced in experi- 
ment 5. From the mixture of these two invisible gas- 
ses a solid substance will be produced, viz. the com- 
mon sal ammoniac ; this may be perceived to deposit 
itself upon the sides of the vessel in a neat chrystaliz- 
ed form. 

7. Convey some carbonic acid gas into a glass jar 
containing a portion of ammoniacal gas. The instant 
the two gasses come in contact a great absorption will 
take place, and solid carbonate of ammonia will be 
formed on the inner surface of the jar. 

8. Put half an ounce of quicksilver into a wine 
glass, and pour about an ounce of diluted nitrous acid 
upon it. The nitrous acid will be decomposed by the 
metal with astonishing rapidity ; the bulk of the acid 
will be quickly changed to a beautiful green, while its 
surface exhibits a dark crimson, and an effervescence 
indescribably vivid and pleasing, will go on during the 
whole time the acid acts upon the quicksilver. When 
a part only of the metal is dissolved, a change of co- 
lour will again take place, and the acid by degrees 
will become paler, till it is as pellucid as pure water. 
This is one instance of a metalic solution by means of 
an acid, in which the opacity of a metallic body is 
completely overcome, and the whole rendered per- 
fectly transparent. 

9. Take the metallic solution formed in the last ex- 
periment, add a little more quicksilver to saturate 
the acid ; then place it at some distance over the 
flame of a lamp, so as gently to evaporate a part of 
the water. The new formed salt will soon be seen to 
shoot into needle- like prismatic chrystal, crossing 
each other in every possible direction, affording an 
instance of a metallic salt. 

10* Pour a drachDi by weight of strong nitrous acid 



11.0, EXPERIMENTS. 

into -a wine-glass, add two drachms of distilled wa- 
ter*, and, when mixed, throw a few very small pie- 
ces of granulated tin into it. A violent effervescence 
will take place, the lighter particles of the tin will be 
thrown to the top of the acid, and be seen to play up 
and down in the liquor for a considerable time, till the 
whole is dissolved. This is another example of a 
transparent liquid holding a metal in solution. 

11. Take an ounce of a solution of potash, pour upon 
it half on ounce of sulphuric acid ; lay the mixture 
aside, and when cold, chrystals of sulphate of potash 
will be formed in the liquor. Here a mild salt has 
been formed from a mixture of two corrosive substan- 
ces. 

12. Take caustic soda one ounce, pour over it one 
ounce of muriatic acid, both of these corrosive sub- 
stances. The produce w 7 ill be our common table salt. 

13. Fluids acted upon by chemical attraction some- 
times become solid, as when carbonate of ammonia and 
alcohol are mixed together in equal quantities, and 
the mixture thrown on blotting paper. 

14. Mix in a wine-glass equal quantities of a satu~ 
rated solution of muriate of lime, and a saturated so- 
lution of carbonate of potash, both transparent^ w/cfo ; 
stir the mixture, and a solid mass will be the product, 

15. Take the substance produced in the foregoing 
experiment, and pour a very little nitric acid upon it. 
The consequence will be the solid matter will be again 
taken up, and the whole exhibit the appearance of 
one homogeneous fluid. An instance of a solid opake 
mass being converted by a chemical agent to a trans- 
parent liquid. 

16. A solid precipitate is produced when a solution 
of common salt, and the nitrate of silver also in solu- 
tion, are presented to each other. 



* Where distilled v, ater is not at hand, oleaa «"ain ot river water v.itl 
answer nearly as v, Sd for most purposes. 



EXPERIMENTS. Ill 

17. Again a liquid aggregate may be produced, by 
adding and briskly triturating together equal parts of 
sulphate of magnesia, and muriate of ammonia. 

18. Put thirty grains of phosphorus into a Florence 
flask, with three or four ounces of water. Place the 
vessel over a lamp, and give it a boiling heat. Balls 
of fire will soon be seen to issue through the water, af- 
ter the manner of an artificial firework, attended with 
the most beautiful confiscations. 

19. Prepare a mixture of equal parts of lump sugar 
and oxyginated muriate of potash ; put a small quan- 
tity of this mixture upon a plate or a tile ; then dip a 
iine glass rod or tobacco pipe into a phial of sulphuric 
acid, so as to convey the smallest quantity of the 
acid ; with this touch the powder, and an immediate 
burst of flame will be the consequence, 

20. Pour boiling water upon a little red cabbage sli- 
ced, and when cold decant the clear infusion. Divide 
the infusion into three wine glasses. To one add a so- 
lution of allum, to the second a little solution of potash, 
and to the third a few drops of muriatic acid. The li- 
quor in the first glass will assume a purple, the second 
a bright green, and the third a beautiful crimson. 
Here is an instance of three different colours from the 
same vegetable infusion, merely by the addition of 
three colourless fluids. 

21. Into a wine-glass of water put a few drops of 
prussiate of potash, and a little dilute solution of sul- 
phate of iron into another glass : by pouring these two 
colourless fluids together, a bright deep blue Colour 
will be immediately produced, which is the true Prus- 
sian blue. 

22. Spread a piece of tinfoil, such as is used for 
coating electrical jars, upon a piece of thick paper; 
pour a small quantity of solution of nitrate of copper 
upon it. Fold it up quickly, and wrap it round care- 
fully with the paper, more effectually to exclude the 
atmospheric air. Place it then upon a tile, and in a 



112 EXPERIMENTS. 

short time combustion will commence, and the tin will 
inflame. 

23. Take three parts of nitre, two of potash, and 
one of sulphur ; all of these should be thoroughly dry; 
then mix them by rubbing them together in a warm 
mortar. The resulting compound is called fuhniyw- 
ting fiowder. If a little of this powder be placed upon 
a lire-hovel, over a hot fire, it gradually blackens, and 
at last melts. At that instant it explodes with a violent 
report. 

24. To a glass of water suspected to contain car- 
bonic acid; add a small quantity of any of the other 
acids. If carbonic acid be present, it will become vi- 
sible by a sparkling appearance on the sides of the 
glass, and surface of the fluid. 

25. Prepare two glasses of rain water, and into one 
of them drop a single drop of sulphuric acid. Pour a 
little nitrate of silver 'into the other glass, and no 
change will be perceptible. Pour some of the same 
solution into the first glass, and a white precipitate of 
sulphate of silver will appear. 

26. Prepare two glasses as in the last experiment, 
and into one of them put a drop or two of. muriatic 
acid. Proceed as before, and a precipitate of muri- 
ate of silver will be produced. 

27. Mix one ounce of litharge of lead with one 
drachm of pulverized muriate of ammonia, and sub- 
mit the mixture to a red heat in a clean tobacco-pipe. 
The increase of temperature will separate the am- 
monia in the form of gas, and the muriatic acid will 
combine with the lead. When the compound is well 
melted, pour it into a metallic cup, and you will have 
a true muriate of lead, of a bright yellow colour, the 
brilliancy of which may be much heightened by grind- 
ing it as usual with oil. In this state it forms the co- 
lour called patent yellow. 

28. Take one ounce of red led, and half a drachm 
of charcoal in powder, incorporate them well in a 



EXPERIMENTS. 113 

mortar, and then fill the bowl of a tobacco-pipe with 
the mixture. Submit it to an. intense heat in a com- 
mon fire, and, when melted, pour it out upon a slab. 
The result will be metallic lead completely revived. 

29. Take a little red lead, expose it to an intense 
heat in a crucible, and pour it out when melted. The 
result will be metallic glass, and will furnish an ex 
ample of the vitrification of metals. 

30. If a few strips of dyed linen cloth, of different 
colours, be dipped into a phial of oxyginated muriatic 
acid, the colours will be quickly discharged ; for 
there are few colours that can resist the energetic ef- 
fect of this acid. This experiment may be considered 
as a complete example of the process of bleaching 
coloured goods. 

31. Having found a piece of blue linen cloth, that 
will bleach in oxyginated muriatic acid, dip the tip of 
the finger in a solution of muriate of tin, and press it 
while wet with the solution upon a strip of this cloth. 
After an interval of a few minutes, immerse the cloth 
in the phial of liquid oxygenized muriatic acid, and 
when it has remained in it the usual time, it will be 
found that the spot which was wet with the muriate 
of tin, has preserved its original colour, while the rest 
of the cloth has become white. 

32. Dip a piece of white calico in a strong solution 
of acetate of iron; dry it by the lire, and lay it aside 
for three or four days. After this, wash it well in hot 
water, and then dye it black, by boiling it for ten mi- 
nutes in a strong decoction of Brazil wood. If the 
cloth be now dried, any figures printed upon it with a 
colourless solution of muriate of tin, will appear of a 
beautiful scarlet, although the ground will remain a 
permanent black. 

33. Dissolve four drachms of sulphate of iron in one 
pint of cold water, then add about six drachms of 
lime in powder, and two drachms of finely pulverized. 
iridigQ, stirring the mixture occasionally for 12 or 14 

k 2 



114 EXPERIMENTS. 

hours. If a piece of white calico be immersed in this 
solution for a few minutes, it will be dyed green ; and 
by exposure to the atmosphere only for a few seconds, 
this will be converted to a permanent blue. 

34. If a piece of calico be immersed in a solution of 
sulphate of iron, and, when dry, washed in a weak 
solution of sulphate of potash, a permanent colour 
will be produced, viz. the buff of the calico printers. 

35. Boil equal parts of arnotto and common potash 
with water, till the whole are dissolved. This will 
produce the pale reddish buff, so much in use, and 
sold under the name of nankeen dye. 

36. If muriate of tin, newly made, be added to a 
solution of indigo in sulphuric acid, the oxygen of the 
indigo will be absorbed, and the solution instantly 
converted to a green. It is on the same principle that 
muriate of tin is employed in cleansing discoloured 
leather furniture ; as it absorbs the oxygen, and the 
leather is restored to its natural colour. 

37. Take a piece of very dark olive-coloured linen 
that has been dyed with fustic, quercitron bark, or 
weld, and spot it in several places with a colourless 
solution of muriate of tin. Wherever the cloth lias 
been touched with this solution, the original colour 
will be discharged, and spots of a bright yellow will 
appear in its stead. 

38. Dip a piece of white calico in a cold solution of 
sulphate of iron, and suffer it to become entirely dry. 
Then imprint any figures upon it with a strong solu- 
tion of colourless citric acid, and allow this also to dry. 
If the piece be then well washed in pure warm water, 
and afterwards boiled in a decoction of logwood, the 
ground will be dyed either of a slate or black colour, 
according to the metallic solution, while the printed 
figures will remain beautifully white. This experi- 
ment is designed to show the effect of acids in dis- 
charging vegetable colour. 



EXPERIMENTS. ii5 

39. If lemon juice be dropped upon any kind of 
buff coulour, the dye will be instantly discharged. 
The application of this acid, by means of the block, 
is another method by which calico-printers give the 
white spots or figures to piece goods. The crystallized 
acid, in a state of solution, is generally used for this 
purpose. These few experiments will give the stu- 
dent some idea of the nature of calico-printing. 

40. Take a slip of blue litmus paper, dip it into 
acetous acid, and it will immediately become red. 
This is a test so delicate, that according to Bergman 
it will detect the presence of sulphuric acid, even if 
the water contain ©sly one part of acid, to thirty-five 
thousand parts of water. Litmus paper, which has 
been thus changed by immersion in acids, is, when, 
dried, a good test for the alkalies ; for, if it be dipped 
in a fluid containing the smallest portion of alkali, the 
dried will disappear, and the paper be restored to 
its original blue colon r. 

41. Take a slip of turmeric paper, and dip it into 
any alkaline solution ; this will change the yellow to 
a deep brown. In many cases turmeric is preferable 
to litmus paper for detecting alkali in solution, as it 
suffers no change from carbonate of lime, which is 
often found in mineral waters. This paper will de- 
tect the presence of soda, though it should amount to 
no more than ^.-L. ff th part of the water. The paper 
thus changed by an alkali, would, if dried, be still 
useful as a test for acids, as these restore its original 
yellow^ 

42. Write upon paper, with a diluted solution of 
muriate of copper ; when dry, it will not be visible, 
but on being warmed before the fire, the writing will 
become of a beautiful yellow. 

43. Write with a solution of muriate of cobalt, and 
the writing, while dry, will not be preceptible ; but if 
held towards the fire, it will then gradually become 
visible ; and if the muriate of cobalt be made in the 



116 EXPERIMENTS. 

usual way, the letters will appear of an elegant green 
colour. 

44. Draw a landscape of Indian ink, and paint the 
foliage of the vegetables with muriate of cobalt, the 
same as that used in experiment No. 43, and some of 
the flowers with acetate of cobalt, and others with 
muriate of copper. While this picture is cold, it will 
appear to be merely an outline of a landscape, or 
winter scene ; but when gently warmed, the trees 
and ftbwers will be displayed in their natural colours, 
which they will preserve only while they continue 
warm. This may be often repeated. 

45. Write with blue nitrate of silver, which when 
dry will be entirely invisible ; hold the paper over a 
vessel containing sulphate of ammonia, and the wri- 
ting will appear very distinct. The letters will shine 
with the metallic brilliancy of silver. 

46. Write with a weak solution of sulphate of iron ; 
let it dry, and it will be invisible. By dipping a feather 
in tincture of galls, and drawing the wet feather over 
the letters, the writing w r ill be restored, and appear 
black. 

47\ Write with a similar solution, and when dry 
wash the letters in the same with prussiate of potash, 
and they will be restored of a beautiful blue. 

48. Fill a glass jar with oxymuriatic acid gas. If 
nickel, arsenic, or bithmuth in powder, be thrown 
into this gas, and the temperature of the atmosphere 
be not lower than 70 Q , the metal will inflame, and 
continue to burn with the most brilliant combustion. 

49. Into a large glass jar, inverted upon a flat brick 
tile, and containing near its top a branch of fresh 
rosemary, or any other such shrub, moistened with 
water, introduce a fiat thick piece of heated iron, on 
which place some gum benzoin in gross powder. The 
benzoic acid, in consequence of the heat, will be sepa- 
rated, and ascend in white fame?, which will at 



EXPERIMENTS* 117 

length condense, and form a most beautiful appear- 
ance upon the leaves of the vegetable. This will 
serve as an example of sublimation. 

50. Fill a glass tumbler half full of lime-water ; 
then breathe into it frequently with the mouth open ; 
at the same time stirring it with a piece of glass. 
The fluid, which before was perfectly transparent, 
will presently become quite white, and, if suffered to 
remain at rest, real chalk will be deposited. 

51. Mix a little acetate of lead with an equal por- 
tion of alum ; both in fine powder ; stir them together 
with a bit of glass or wood, and no chemical change 
will be perceptible ; but if they be rubbed together in 
a mortar, the two solids will operate upon each other ; 
an intimate union will take place, and a fluid will be 
produced. 

52. Put a little common magnesia in a tea-cup up- 
on the hearth, and suddenly pour over it as much 
concentrated sulphuric acid as will cover the mag- 
nesia. In an instant the mixture will take fire. 

53. If a few pounds of a mixture of iron filings and 
sulphur be made into a paste with water, and buried 
in the ground for a few hours, the water will be de- 
composed with so much rapidity, that combustion and 
flame will be the consequence, and an artificial vol- 
cano will be produced. 

54. Put a little spirits of wine in a tea- cup, set it on 
fire, and invert a large glass over it. In a short time 
an aqueous vapour will be seen to condense upon the 
inside of the glass, which, by means of a dry sponge, 
may be collected, and its quantity ascertained. This 
may be adduced as an example of the formation of 
water by combustion. 

55. Pour a little water into a phial containing about 
an ounce of olive oil. Shake the phial, and if the con- 
tents be observed, we shall find that no union has ta- 
ken place. But if some solution of caustic potash be 
added, and the phial be then shaken, an intimate 



118 EXPERIMENTS. 

combination of the materials will be formed by the 
disposing affinity of the alkali, and a perfect soap 
produced, 

56. Drop upon a clean plate of copper, a small 
quantity of solution of nitrate of silver ; in a short time 
a metallic vegetation will be preceptible, branching 
out in very elegant and pleasing forms, furnishing an 
example of metallic revivification. 

57. Dissolve an ounce of acetate of lead in about a 
quart or more of water, and filter the solution. If this 
be put into a glass decanter, and a piece of zinc sus- 
pended in it by means of a brass wire, a decomposi- 
tion of the salt will immediately commence, the lead 
will be set at liberty, and will attach itself to the re- 
maining zinc, forming a metallic tree. 

58. For want of a proper glass vessel, a tablespoon 
full of either may be put into a moistened bladder, 
and the neck of the bladder closely tied. If hot wa- 
ter be then poured upon it, or if it be held to the fire, 
the ether will expand, and the bladder become in- 
flated. 

59. Place a lighted wax taper within a narrow 
glass jar, then take ajar or phial of carbonic acid gas, 
and cautiously pour it into the j ar containing the ta- 
per. This being an invisible gas, the operator will 
appear to invert merely an emfity vessel, though the 
taper will be as effectually and instantaneously extin- 
guished, as if A T ater itself had been used. 

60. Make a little charcoal perfectly dry, pulverize 
it very line, and put it in a warm teacup. If some 
strong nitrous acid be now poured upon it, combustion 
and inflammation will immediately ensue. 

61. Put a bit of phosphorus into a small phial, then 
fill one- third with boiling olive-oil, and cork it close. 
Whenever the stopper is taken out in the night, light 
will be evolved, sufficient to show the hour upon a 
watch. 



EXPERIMENTS. 119 

62. Take a glass tube with a bulb, in form of a 
common thermometer ; fill it with cold water, and 
suspend it by a string. If the bulb be frequently and 
continually moistened with pure sulphuric ether, the 
water will presently be frozen, even in summer. 

63. Dissolve five drachms of muriate of ammonia, 
nnd five drachms of nitre, both finely powdered, in 
two ounces of water. A thermometer immersed in 
the solution, will show that the temperature is re- 
duced below 32°. If a thermometer tube, filled with 
water, be now suspended within it, the water will 
soon be as effectually frozen, as in the last experi- 
ment. 

64. A diluted solution of pure potash will speedily 
remove greasy spots. Spots from wax candles, or 
white paint may be removed by spirits of turpentine. 

65. Dissolve common hard soap m alcohol, drop 
the solution into distilled water, and no change will 
be perceptible. If the water be what is called hard 
water, a milkiness will instantly be produced, more 
or less opaque as the water is more or less pure. 
This effect is owing to the alkali in the soap quitting 
the oil when water contains any substance, for which 
it has a stronger affinity than for oil. All acids and 
all earthy and metallic salt decompose soap. Their 
presence occasions the property called hardness in 
water. 

66. Cooking utensils, when made of these metals.* 
sometimes communicate a poisonous quality to the 
victuals put into them. If copper be suspected to 
exist in any liquid, as in the vinegar in which pickles 
are kept, for instance, it may be immediately detect- 
ed by pouring into the acid a solution of pure am- 
monia. In this ca^e a beautiful azure colour will be 
formed, and it will be dangerous to make any use of 
the vinegar or pickles. 

67. Water kept in leaden vessels, or which passes 
through leaden pipes is frequently injurious to health. 



120 EXPERIMENTS. 

By adding- to the suspected water about half its bulk 
of water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen 
gas r a dark brown or blackish colour will be given to 
the liquid, if lead be present ; a precipitate will after- 
v,»ards be found, upon applying* the heat of a blow- 
pipe to it globules of metallic lead are yielded. 

68. Flake white, or, ceruse, is frequently added to 
wines and spirits, by unprincipled dealers, in order 
to correct the acidity of fermentation. Many fatal ac- 
cidents have happened to the lower classes from the 
use of such beverages. The following test .will dis- 
cover the presence of this dangerous article. Put 
into a small phial, sixteen grains of dry sulphuret of 
lime, and twenty grains of acidulous tartrite of potash 
(cream of tarter. )The phial is to be filled up with 
water, and shaken for eight or ten minutes after 
being well corked. When some of this test, after being 
decanted clear from the powder, is poured into the 
suspected liquor, a dark coloured precipitate will be 
formed, if lead oe present. 

69. Melt sulphur in a small iron ladle, and carry 
it into a dark room, in the state of fusion. If an ounce 
or two of copper filings be now thrown in, light will 
be evolved. 

70. Take a phial with solution of sulphate of zinc, 
and another containing a little liquid ammonia, both 
transparent Raids. By mixing them, a curious phe- 
nomenon may be perceived— the zinc will be imme- 
diately precipitated in a white mass, and, if then 
shaken, almost as instantly re-dissolved. 

71. Add a few grains of oxygenized muriate of pot- 
ash to a tea- -spoon full or two of alcohol, drop one or 
two drops of sulphuric acid upon the mixture, and 
the whole will burst into flame, forming a very beau- 
tiful appearance. 

72. If 20 grains of phosphorus, cut very small, and 
mixed with 40 grams of finely powdered zinc, oe put 
into 4 drachms of water, and 2 drachms of concentra- 



EXPERIMENTS* 121 

ted sulphuric acid be added thereto, bubbles of in- 
flamed phosphuretted hydrogen gas will quickly cover 
the whole surface of the fluid in succession, forming 
a real fountain of lire. 

73. If flowers, or any other figures, be drawn upon 
a ribband or silk with a solution of nitrate of silver, 
and the silk moistened with water, be then exposed 
to the action of hydrogen gas, the silver will be revi 
ved, and figures, firmly fixed upon the silk, will be- 
come visible, and shine with metallic brilliancy. 

74. By proceeding in the same manner, and using 
a solution of gold in nitro-muriatic acid, silks may be 
permanently gilt at a most insignificant expense, and 
will exhibit an appearance the most beautiful that 
can be conceived. 

75. If a small thermometer be placed in a glass 
vessel containing about an ounce of a solution of soda, 
on adding a sufficient quantity of muriatic acid to sa- 
turate the soda, the mercury in the thermometer will 
expand, affording an instance of heat being produced 
by the formation of a salt. 

76. Let the last experiment be repeated, with the 
carbonate of soda, instead of pure soda ; the mercury 
will now sink in the thermometer. Here, though the 
same kind of salt is formed, cold is produced. 

77. Fill a thermometer tube with tepid water, and 
immerse in a glass vessel of water of the same tem- 
perature, containing a mercurial thermometer. If 
the whole be now placed in a bed of snow, or in a 
freezing mixture, the water in a tube will suffer a 
progressive diminution of volume, until it arrives at 
about 40? ; it will then begin to expand gradually, un- 
til it becomes solid. This shows how ice is able to 
swim on the surface of the water. 

78. It is an interesting experiment to place a 
glow-worm within a jar of oxygen gas, in a dark room. 
The insect will shine with much greater brilliancy 
tb.an it does in atmospheric air, and appear more 

L 



122 EXPERIMENTS. 

alert. As the luminous appearance depends on the 
will of the animal, this experiment affords an instance 
of. the stimulus which this gas communicates to the 
animal system. 

79. If a morsel of dry nitrate of silver, (lunar caus- 
tic) be laid on a piece of burning charcoal, the metal- 
lic salt will immediately deflagrate, throw out the 
most beautiful scintillations that can be imagined, 
and the surface of the charcoal will be richly coated 
with metallic silver. 

80. Drop a piece of phosphorus about the size of a 
pea into a tumbler of hot water, and from a bladder, 
furnished with a stop-cock, force a stream of oxygen 
directly upon it. This will afford the most brilliant 
combustion under water that can be imagined. 

81. Drop a little leaf-gold into nitro- muriatic acid, 
and it will instantly disappear, This experiment is 
designed to show the great solubility of the metals, 
when submitted to a proper menstruum. 

82. Pour a little purified nitric acid into one wine- 
glass, and muriatic acid into another, and drop a lit- 
tle leaf-gold into each. Here neither of these corro- 
sive acids will act at all upon the metal, the gold will 
remain untouched. Now pour the whole contents of 
the two glasses together, and the metal will disap- 
pear, and be as effectually dissolved as in the last ex- 
periment. 

83. Put into a wine-glass about a scruple of oxidized 
manganese and potash, and an equal quantity of the 
same compound into another glass. On one pour hot, 
and on the other cold water. The hot solution will 
exhibit a beautiful green colour, the cold one, a deep 
purple. 

84. If a small portion of the same compound be 
put into several glasses, and water at different tem- 
peratures be poured upon each, the contents of each 
glass will exhibit a different shade of colour. This 
experiment affords another instance of metals pro- 



EXPERIMENTS. 123 

ducing various colours according to their different 
states of oxidizement. 

85. Into a glass of water containing a small por- 
tion of common salt, drop some of a clear s61ution of 
nitrate of silver, and an insoluble precipitate of mu- 
riate of silver will be produced. This experiment 
gives some idea of the method of analysing mineral 
waters. Every 100 grains of this precipitate, when 
dried, indicate 42 grains of common salt. 

86. Into distilled water, drop a little spiritous 
solution of soap, and no chemical effect will be per- 
ceived, but if some of the same solution be added to 
hard water, a milkiness will immediately be produc- 
e4 more or less, according to the 'degree of its impuri- 
ty. This is a good method of ascertaining the purity 
of spring water. 

87. If a little pure white calomel be rubbed in a 
glass mortar with a little colourless solution of caus- 
tic ammonia, the whole will become intensely black. 

88. Dissolve about a drachm of pulverized sul- 
phate of copper, in a little boiling water, and an 
equal quantity of powdered muriate of ammonia in 
a separate vessel, in hot water. By mixing the con- 
tents of the two glasses, a quadruple salt will be for- 
med, which gives a yellow colour to the solution 
while hot, and becomes green when cold. 

89. If a fiat bar of iron be hammered briskly on 
an anvil, its temperature will soon be so increased, 
that a piece of phosphorus laid upon it, would in- 
stantly be inflamed. This experiment is designed to 
show, that caloric may be evolved merely by per- 
cussion. 

90. If a piece of bright silver be dipped in a solu- 
tion of sulphate of copper, it will come out unchang- 
ed : but if the blade of a clean pen-knife, or any 
piece of fio'ished iron, be dipped in the same solution, 
the iron will instantly put on the appearance of cop- 
per. 



124 EXPERIMENTS. 

91. Take the piece of silver, employed in the last 
experiment, hold it in contact ivith the iron y and 
then in this situation, dip them into the same solution 
and both will be covered with copper. 

92. Melt together equal parts of copper and anti- 
mony, the one a yellow, the other a white metal, 
and the alloy that results from this mixture, will 
take the colour of the violet. 

93. If the grey oxide of antimony be fused in a 
crucible, we procure a beautiful transparent glass, 
which is called the glass of antimony. This takes 
the colour of the hyacinth. 

94. When antimony is well fused upon charcoal, 
and if, at the moment when its surface is not cover- 
ed with any particle of oxide, we throw it suddenly 
upon the ground, the globules, into which it divides 
in its fall, burn with a very lively flame, throwing out 
on all sides brilliant sparks, different from that of a- 
ny other metal. 

95. Dissolve dry nitrate of silver in pure water; 
add a little oil of turpentine, shake the mixture, and 
cork it close. Submit the phial, with its contents, to 
the heat of boiling water for an hour, when the me- 
tal will be revived, and the inside of the phial, where 
the oil reposed on the aqueous solution, will be beau- 
tifully silvered, the revived metal forming a metallic 
ring, extending quite round the phial. 

96. Immerse a slip of white silk in a solution of 
nitro-muriate of gold in distilled water, and dry it in 
the air. Silk thus prepared, will not be altered by 
hydrogen gas ; but if another piece of silk be dipped 
in the solution, and exposed while wet to the same 
current of hydrogen gas, instant signs of metallic re- 
duction will appear ; the colour will change from yel- 
low to green, and a brilliant film of reduced gold will 
soon glitter on its surface. 

97. Dissolve some chrystals of muriate of tin in dis- 
tilled water, then clip a piece of white silk in the so- 



EXPERIMENTS. 125 

lution, and dry it in the air. If this be now immersed 
in hydrogen gas, no change will be observed ; but if it 
be exposed while wet to the same current of gas, the 
reduction will soon commence, attended with a great 
variety of beautiful colours, as red, yellow, orange, 
green, and blue, variously intermixed. 

98. If a bit of white silk be immersed in an etheral 
solution of gold, and dried, the application of phos- 
phorized ether w T ill only impart a brown colour to the 
silk ; but if it be placed on the palm of the hand, as 
soon as the phosphorous begins to fume, and breathed 
on for a considerable time, the brown will be suc- 
ceeded by a purple tinge, and the metallic lustre of 
the gold soon begin to appear. 

99. With a needle pass a thread through a smair 
bit of phosphorus, previously freed from moisture, by 
immersing it in alcohol. If this be suspended in an 
aqueous solution of nitro-rnuriate of gold, in a few 
minutes the phosphorus will become covered with 
gold. 

100. If a piece of white silk be dipped in an aque- 
ous solution of nitro-muriate of gold, and exposed 
while wet to sulphurous acid gas, the whole piece will 
in a few seconds, be covered with a coat of reduced 
gold, which remains permanent. 

101. Dip a piece of white calico in an aqueous solu- 
tion of acetate of lead, and then drop a little solution 
of sulphuret of potash upon it. If this be now placed 
in the palm of the hand, the lead will be observed 
gradually to revive, and will soon be reduced to its 
metallic state. 

102. Dissolve some sulphuret of potash in alcohol, 
and immerse a slip of white silk in the solution. If a 
drop of an aqueous solution of sulphate of manganese 
be now applied, films of metallic manganese, bright 
as silver, will instantly appear. 



QUESTIONS 

And other exercises on the foregoing summary 
of facts and experiments. 

DO fluids or solids conduct heat most readily ? 

Explain this from the boiling of water. 

What is the consequence of water being frozen ? 

What is the reason that, deep lakes never freeze ? 

What are the effects of caloric upon metals, 
earths, and other solid bodies ? 

What is the difference between expansion and 
fluidity ? 

What is meant by the term fusion ? 

What is meant by the term vitrification ? 

What is vapour, or steam ? 

In what manner is caloric diffused ? 

What are its effects upon water I 

What are its effects upon bodies in general ? 

Illustrate these effects by experiments. 

What bodies are most expanded by caloric ? 

Are bodies heavier when united with caloric ? 

What compounds does it form with the simple 
substances ? 

What is the disposition of a heated body ? 

Illustrate this by an example. 

Are all substances equally susceptible of con- 
veying caloric ? 

Illustrate this by an example. 

What is the object of chemistry ? 



eyrESTioNs. 127 

How is a substance, or body defined ? 

What is the difference between a simple and a 
compound body ? 

Illustrate this difference by examples. 

What is the meaning of the words analysis and 
synthesis, in chemistry ? 

Illustrate this by examples. 

By what kind agency are substances analysed I 

What is chemical affinity r 

Illustrate this by an example ? 

Enumerate the substances regarded by che^ 
mists as simple substances. 

What is caloric or heat ? 

What is light ? 

When is caloric perceptible to our senses I 

What is the most powerful chemical agent ? 

What is chemical mixture ? 

What is the difference between a mixture and 
a solution ? 

Illustrate this by examples. 

What is meant by the term saturation 

Illustrate this by an example. 

What is meant by the boiling and freezing points 
in the thermometer ? 

What degree of heat may be given to water ? 

Illustrate this by describing Papin's digester. 

Describe oxygen. 

What are its effects on the metals ? 

What agent is necessary for oxidizing metals 

Are oxides heavier than the metal which pro- 
duced them ? 

Does heat operate in the same way upon all sub- 
stances ? 

Illustrate this by an example. 



128 QUESTIONS. 

What is the difference between bodies that are 
combustible, and those that are not combustible ? 

Does water become hotter by being boiled in the 
common way ? 

What are the uses to which steam is applied ? 

Illustrate this by examples. 

Describe the effects of heat in the operation of 
evaporation, distillation, and sublimation. 

On what principle does nitrogen gas extinguish 
flame ?' 

Illustrate this by an example. 

How is oxygen gas obtained ? 

Describe this by an experiment. 

What proportion dees oxygen form in the air 
' we breathe ? 

What are the effects of oxygen gas in combus- 
tion ? 

What is nitrogen ? 

What is the proportion of nitrogen in the atmos- 
phere ? 

How is it procured ? 

Describe this by experiments. 

What is the comparative weight of nitrogen 
gas? 

What are its effects when breathed ? 

What are its combinations with oxygen ? 

For what substances has oxygen a strong affinity ? 

What taste or character does oxygen give to 
bodies ? 

Illustrate this by an example. 

Does oxygen impart the acid character to every 
substance ? 

Does it combine with substances in an uniform 
or equal quantity ? 



QUESTIGNS. 129 

Illustrate this by an example. 

What are the combinations of nitrogen gas arfd 
©xygen gas? 

What is the nature of nitrous oxide ? 

What is nitrous gas ? 

What is phosphuretted hydrogen gas ? 

Describe the method of obtaining it by experi- 
ments. 

What is carburetted hydrogen gas ? 

What is phosphorus ? 

What are its effects when exposed to the coin- 
mon air ? 

What is hydrogen ? 

In what state is it found ? 

How is hydrogen gas obtained ? 

Illustrate this by experiment. 

What is the comparative weight of hydrogen 
gas? 

What are the effects of mixing hydrogen gas 
with common air ? 

Illustrate these effects by an experiment, 

What other substances, besides water, does hy- 
drogen gas combine with 1 

What is sulphuretted hydrogen gas ? 

Is hydrogen gas inflammable ? 

Is it capable of supporting combustion of itself ? 

How are the gas lights obtained ? 

Describe this by experiments afcd illustrations. 

How is phosphoric acid formed ? 

What effects has phosphorus when taken into 
the stomach ? 

What is phosphate of lime I 

How is it obtained ? 

In what substances does it exist ? 



130 QUESTIONS. 

What is charcoal ? 

What are the properties of charcoal ? 

Illustrate them by examples ? 

How is charcoal procured ? 

Describe the effects of phosphorus by experi- 
ments. 

What is phosphorus; combined with sulphur ? 

What is a phosphate ? 

What is the nature of its attraction for oxygen f 

What is sulfihurous acid ? 

What is sulphuric acid ? 

With what substances does sulphur unite ? 

What smell does it communicate to mineral 
waters ? 

In what substance is carbon supposed to exist 
in a state of purity ? 

In what combination do we most frequently 
meet with it ? 

In what substances is lime found in most abun- 
dance ? 

What part of free-stone does it constitute ? 

What is the chief ingredient of sea-shells ? 

Of what are the shells of eggs, and of snails 
chiefly composed ? 

What is the manure called marl ? 

What is carbonic acid ? 

What are carbonates ? 

What is carbonic acid gas ? ; 

What are the effects of breathing carbonic acid 
gas ? 

Illustrate them by an example. 

Where is carbonic acid gas found ? 

Explain the method of obtaining carbonic acid 
gas by experiments. 



QUESTIONS. 131 

What are the earths ? 

Enumerate the simple earths. 

Which of the simple earths are most abundant ? 

What are the effects of moisture, air, and heat, 
upon charcoal ? 

Illustrate this by examples. 

What is the chief ingredient of common coal ? 

What other substances does it form part of ? 

How does it combine with iron ? 

Illustrate this by plumbago, or black-lead. 

What name is given to these compounds of lime? 

How is quick-lime procured ? 

What is slaked-lime ? 

What effect has heat upon metals ? 

What effect has oxygen upon them ? 

What name do they assume in consequence of 
this effect ? 

State the comparative weight of the metals ? 

Are they capable of transmitting light through 
them ? 

What is their most remarkable property ? 

What is silex ? 

In what substance is silex found ? 

What are pebbles composed of? 

Enumerate the other substances which are com- 
posed of silex 

What is meant by the term malleability ? 

What is ittria ? 

What is glucine ? 

What is zirconia ? 

On what account are the metals valuable ? 

What is the nature of their texture ? 

What is plaster of Paris ? 

What is aiumine ? 



132 QUESTION^. 

Of what are clays, and argillaceous earths com- 
posed I 

In what state are clays found ? 

How is clay changed by heat? 

What is strontites ? 

What are the properties of strontites ? 

What is the ehief ingredient in gun-flints ? 

What are the rock crystals composed of ? 

Illustrate this by an example. 

What is the earth, called magnesia ? 

What is barytes? 

To what uses are the metallic oxides applied ? 

What are the names and properties of the per- 
fect metals ? 

In what manner may the metals be oxidized, 
without being exposed to air, or moisture ? 

What effects have the metallic oxides on glass ? 

What is the property of a compound of two 
metals ? 

Explain what is meant by soldering for the 
metals ? 

What effects has oxygen on compounds of 
metals ? 

What is a metallic oxide ? 

Describe the weight of an oxide, and explain it 
by an illustration. 

Describe the process of reduction, and explain 
it by an illustration. 

What is the chief property of gold, as a metal I 

What is a metallic solution? 

What metals are found in a pure state ? 

What oth&r simple substances besides oxygen, 
do the metals combine with ? 



QUESTIONS. 13S 

\Vh&t combinations of this description are most 
frequently met with ? 

Describe the appearances attending the solutiqn 
of a metal in an acid. 

What are its effects when swallowed ? 

What are the names of the metals, called mal- 
leable metals ? 

Enumerate the brittle metals that may be easily- 
fused. 

Enumerate the brittle metals that are with dif- 
ficulty fused. 

In what state are metals generally found ? 

What is an ore ? 

Explain it by an illustration. 

Where are ores of metals generally found ? 

Explain how a metal is procured from an ore* 

Explain the nature of combinations of platinum 
with other metals. 

What are the chief properties of silver ? 

Describe its uses in chemistry ? 

What name is given to the solution of silver ? 

Describe its properties. 

What is the name of the acid which dissolves 
or oxidizes it ? 

Describe the solution of gold by an experiment, 

What is platinum ? 

Of what colour is it, and what is its malleability ? 

What are its other properties ? 

What is a sulphur et of mercury ? 

Illustrate this by an experiment. 

In what state is cinnabar found ? 

J3oes mercury unite with other metals ? 

What is an amalgam? 

Explain this by the silvering of lookine-glasses 
M 



134 QUESTIONS. 

What are the chief properties of copper ? 

What are its appearances when exposed to heat 1 

What is the nature of lunar caustic ? 

How is the nitrate of silver decomposed ? 

Explain this by experiments. 

What are the chief properties of mercury, or 
quicksilver ? 

Under what circumstances can it be frozen, or 
Tendered solid ? 

State the peculiar properties of iron. 

To what extent is it malleable? 

In what state is iron found f 

How is it separated from its ore ? 

What is pig, or cast iron ? 

What are the chief properties of tin ? 

Does it combine with other metals ? 

To what uses is copper applied in chemistry ? 

What are the metals which form brass ? 

Explain the effects of an acid upon copper. 

State its combination with the metals. 

Illustrate the alloy of copper witb gold. 

What is the chief ingredient m bronze and bell 
metal ? 

State the purposes of tinning other metals, 
and explain it by experiments. 

What are the remarkable properties of lead ? 

How is wrought iron made I 

How is steel made ? 

Enumerate the different kinds of steel, and ex- 
plain how they are made. 

What is green vitriol ? 

Illustrate its use in dying, and in making ink. 

In what substance is zinc found f 

To what purposes is it applied ? 



QUESTIONS. 135 

What effects are produced by applying heat to 
it? 

Illustrate these effects by an example. 

What is cobalt ? 

In what state is it used ? 
. Describe the substance, called smalt$> by pain- 
ters. 

In what state is arsenic found ? 

What are its effects in medicine ? 

What effects are produced when heat is applied 
to it? 

When mixed with copper, what are its effects ? 

What is the result of its combinations with sul- 
phur ? 

Explain this by examples. 

What are the properties of antimony ? 

To what purposes is it applied ? 

What are its effects in medicine ? 

In what respects is bismuth remarkable ? 

In what state is it found ? 

What are the effects of mixing or alloying it 
with other metals ? 

Explain these effects by an experiment. 

What are the effects of oxygen upon lead ? 

Explain this by experiments. 

Of what is pewter formed ? 

Where is nickel found ? 

To what uses is it applied by the Chinese ? 

What is chrome I 

To what uses may it be applied ? 

Where is cobalt found ? 

In what state is manganese found ? 

Is it applied to any use as a metal? 



136 QUESTIONS. 

What quantity of oxygen does it contain as uh 
oxide I 

To what purposes is oxide of manganese applied ? 

What is the most striking peculiarity of the al- 
kalies ? 

What effect have they on the juices of vegeta- 
bles ? 

How do they act, when mixed with oil and 
water ? 

How is soda procured ? 

What is common salt made of ? 

Where is soda found in a native state ? 

To what us-is are potash and soda applied ? 

Illustrate these uses. 

What are the two fixed alkalies ? 

What is the third alkali ? 

State the recent discoveries of Mr. Davy, res* 
pectin g the alkalies. 

How is potash procured ? 

In what substances is it found ? 

W hat is the nature of ammoniacal gas ? 

Shew how it is procured by experiments. 

What is ammonia composed of ? 

In what state do animal and vegetable substances 
produce aramqnia? 

How is is procured ? 

In what countries is potash chiefly procured? 

State the various names of soda. 

Describe the method of obtaining pure potash 
and soda from/an experiment. 
hat are the caustic alkalies ? 

Whc t are the mild alkalies ? 

peseribe the nature of ammonia? 

How is sal ammonia prepared I 



QUESTIONS* 137 

What are the uses of sal ammonia? 

How many classes of acids are there ? 

How is sulphuric acid formed ? 

What are its properties ? 

Illustrate the nature of the sulphates from ex- 
amples. 

What effects has sulphuric acid in the state of 
gas ? 

What are the effects of the oxymuriatic acid 
gas upon metals ? 

Illustrate these effects by experiments. 

What is nitric acid ? 

What are the properties of nitric acid ? 

What are its effects on the metals ? 

What is the most frequent property of acids ? 

What effect have they upon the juices of vege- 
tables ? 

What are the chemical compounds, called salts ? 

To what combination do the salts owe their ori- 
gin ? 

What is the composition of fluoric acid? 

To what uses is it applied ? 

Illustrate its use by experiments. 

What is boracic acid ? 

How is muriatic acid obtained ? 

Describe its effects in the state of gas. 

Has it been as yet decompounded ? 

What are the salts, called muriates ? 

Illustrate their nature by an example. 

What is oxymuriatic acid ? 

What are the effects of the gas produced from 
eyxmuriatic acid ? 

What are its uses in bleaching ? 

How is the nitro-muriatic acid formed ? 

M 2 



138 QUFSTIONS. 

What are the component parts of earboaic 
acid ? 

What are the effects of carbonic acid gas when 
mixed with water ? 

Explain these effects by an example. 

With what substances does carbonic acid com- 
bine ? 

What a:-e the carbonates ? 

State the composition of phosphoric acid. 

What are its appearances when deprived of 
water ? 

In what substances is oxalic acid found ? 

To what purposes is oxalic acid applied ? 

What is iratarous acid ? 

Hew is it obtained ? 

How is acetous acid obtained ? 

How is distilled vinegar obtained ? 

What is acetk acid ? 

How are the acetates formed ? 

Describe them by an illustration. 

What are. the properties of acetic acid ? 

To what purposes is it applied ? 

What is the citric acid ? 

What is the mucous acid ? 

Describe the benzoic acid. 

What is succinic acid ? 

Describe the manner in which it is obtained. 

How is camphoric acid obtained ? 

What is prussic acid composed of? 

How is it prepared ? 

What is sebacic acid ? 

What is the definition of salts, in chemistry ? 

What is a super-carbonate ? 

What is a sub-carbonate ? 



^t/ESTIONg. 139 

What is the difference between sate termina- 
ting in zte, and in ate ? 

Explain this by an illustration. 

How is malic acid obtained ? 

To what purposes is it applied ? 

Illustrate the uses of malic acid by experiment- 
How is lactic acid formed ? 

What is gallic acid composed of? 

What are the properties of gallic acid ? 

What is a neutral salt ? 

What is meant by the term sulphates ? 

What is meant by the term nitrates ? 

What is meant by the term carbonates I 

Give examples of the above combinations,. 

What are the properties of the muriates ? 

Illustrate these properties by an experiment. 

What other properties do the muriates possess? 

Explain the effects of heat when applied to com? 
mon salt. 

Where are the muriates most generally met 
with? 

What are the properties of the sulphates ? 

Enumerate the principal sulphates. 

What is the nature of the sulphites ? 

What are the nitrates remarkable for ? 

What is the effect of pouring sulphuric acici 
upon the nitrates ? 

What is salt-peter ? 

Which is the most common carbonate ? 

What is glass of phosphorus ? 

What are the most common phosphoric salts ? 

Give the definition of an oxide ? 

What substances are capable of becoming ox- 
ides? 



140 qjJESTIONS. 

What are the most remarkable properties of 
the fluates ? 

Enumerate the filiates most commonly met with? 

What is Derbyshire spar composed of ? 

In what substances is phosphate of lime found ? 

Explain the nature of phosphate of lime by an 
illustration. 

By what property are the acetates distinguished ? 

What are the chief acetic salts ? 

What is acetate of lead, and how is it formed I 

What are the tartrites ? 

What are the prussiates ? 

What degrees of affinity exist between the me- 
tals and oxygen ? 

In what state do metallic oxides exist, and what 
are the metallic salts ? 

In what state can a metal be dissolved in the 
acids ? 

What other substances besides the metals have 
their oxides ? 

Describe such bodies as are called combustible, 

What are the simple combustibles ? 

Enumerate them, and prove their combustibility 
by an experiment. 

What is oxide of sulphur ? 

What is oxide of phosphorus 

What substance is formed by hydrogen and 
•xygen ? 

What are compound combustibles ? 

Enumerate some of them from the illustration. 

How many incombustible substances are there .? 

What are the nitrous and nitric oxides ? 

How is nitrous oxide procured ? 



qUESTTONS* 144 

What are the properties and effects of nitrous 
oxide ? 

How is nitric oxide procured ? 

What are the effects of nitrous or nitrogen gas ? 

What is meant by the term combustion ? 

Explain the effects of oxygen upon combustion 
from the illustration. 

What combination is formed by nitrous or ni- 
trogen gas with oxygen ? 

Illustrate the animal and vegetable substances 
Capable of becoming oxides. 

Describe the circumstances absolutely neces- 
sary before combustion can take place ? 

Explain this by an illustration. 

In what proportion is heat produced during 
combustion ? 

Whence is the heat derived which is formed 
during combustion ? 

Explain this by the illustration of a common 
fire. 

What substances are called supporters of com- 
bustion ? 

Explain their properties by illustrations. 

What is the principle which gives bodies these 
properties ? 

Under what circumstances does hydrogen em- 
anate from animal and vegetable substances ? 

When does water assume a solid form I 

In what state is water purest I 

What is mineral water ? 

What are the substances which unite in form- 
ing mineral water ? 

What is the difference between an oxide anS 
an acid, formed by combustion ? 



142 <yJESTIONS. 

What is the effect of combustion in forming 
Hew conciliations of bodies ? 

How is water compounded ? 

How is water decomposed ? 

Enumerate the simple substances which enter 
into the combination of vegetables. 

What is the most frequent ingredient in vege- 
tables ? 

Illustrate this by examples. 

In what substances is gum, or mucilage, found 

What are the gums most used in chemistry ? 

From what substance is jelly procured ? 

What is the vegetable substance in which tan 
is most abundant ? 

What is tan remarkable for ? 

Explain its uses by an illustration. 

What is the common name of sulphate of mag* 
nesia I 

What is the nature of chalybeate springs ? 

Which of these substances is most common in 
mineral waters ? 

What kind of salts are most frequently found 
in mineral waters ? 

In what vegetables is the bitter principle most 
conspicuous ? 

Describe the circumstances under which opium 
is found, and explain its appearance by an illus- 
tration. 

In what substances is gluten and stareh to be 
found ? 

Describe the method of obtaining gluten and 
starch by an experiment. 

In what state does oil exist in vegetables ? 

How are fixed vegetable oils obtained ? 



QUESTIONS* 143 

What is an essential or volatile oil ? 

Describe the method of procuring it, by an illus- 
tration. 

What is albumen ? 

Explain the composition of albumen by an illus- 
tration. 

Describe the nature of camphor. 

In what manner is wax formed ? 

How is resin produced ? 

What are the substances called resins ? 

What is Indian-rubber ? 

What is cork ? 

What is gelatine? 

How are essential distinguished from fixed oils ? 

What are the properties of the essential oils ? 

Enumerate the simple substances, of which ani- 
mal bodies are compounded. 

What is the most common ingredient in animal 
substances 

What is putrefaction ? 

Explain the effects of putrefaction by an illus- 
tration. 

, What is the character of oils obtained from land 
animals ? 

Under what circumstances is phosphorus found 
in animal substances ? 

What are the bones of animals composed of? 

What is butter ? 

What is fermentation ? 

Describe the vinous fermentation, by illustra- 
tions. 

In what kind of animal substance is sugar found ? 

What kinds of oils are found in animals ? 

What is spermaceti ? 



144 QUESTIONS. 

What is the character of fish-oil ? 

What is the clot, or thick part of blood composed 
of? 

What are the component parts of the watery 
part of blood ? 

What is milk composed of ? 

What is the acetous fermentation ? 

By what experiment is flame and combustion 
produced, without the application of fire? 

In what manner is the sensation of cold produ- 
ced ? 

Describe the experiments by which a mild salt 
may be produced from two corrosive substances. 

How is phosphorus treated, in order to produce 
instantaneous light, in the dark ? 

In what manner may water be frozen in the 
midst of summer ? 

How is inflamed phosphuretted hydrogen gas 
procured ? 

How are colours discharged from dyed linen, 
or cotton cloth ? 

Describe the method of writing on paper, with 
i?ik that becomes visible only when heated. 

Describe the experiments by which the metals 
are made to burn. 

Describe the method of putting silver flowers 
upon silk ribband. 

Describe the experiment by which oil and water 
may be made to unite. 

Describe by experiments how to produce a 
solid substance, by the mixture of two fluids. 

How is a transparent fluid produced from a solids 
substance ? 

jiow is carbonic acid detected in water ? 



QUESTIONS* 145 

Describe by experiments the method of obtain- 
ing sulphate of silver, and muriate of silver. 

By what experiment may a landscape be pain- 
ted, so as to appear as an outline only at first, but 
Which afterwards assumes various colours ? 

What effect is produced by breathing into a 
tumbler full of lime water ? 

What is the vapour, produced by burning spirits 
of wine, composed of I 

What is the effect of pouring solution of nitrate 
of copper upon tin-foil ? 

How is the metallic tree formed ? 

What is the production resulting from melting 
red-lead and charcoal together ? 

How is the paint called patent yellow produced ? 
and what is its name in chemistry ? 

Describe the effects produced by shaking a mix- 
ture of sulphate of zinc, and li uid ammonia. 

Describe by experiments the changes of colour 
produced in the tincture of red-cabbage. 

Describe by an experiment the revivification of 
silver, from the nitrate of silver. 

How is the colour called Prussian blue formed ? 

Under what circumstance does the union of two 
gases form a solid substance ? 

In what manner is silk coated with leafgold ? 

Describe by experiments the method of reviving 
the metals, when thin silk or calico is covered with 
oxides, or metallic salts. 

What is the effect of dropping nitrate of silver 
into water containing some common salt ? 
N 



GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 

USED IN 

CHEMISTRY 



A 

Acetic acid. The pure ?*cid portion of vinegar. 

Acetates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with the acetic acid. 

Acids, Are those bodies which produce the taste of 
sourness. In general they are liquids ; some of 
them, however, exist in a solid form. 

— — — oxygenized. Acids combined with an addi- 
tional quantity of oxygen, for particular pur- 
poses. 

Acid acetous. The base of vinegar produced by a pe- 
culiar fermentation from vinous liquors. 

— arsenic. A compound of arsenic and oxygen. 

■ ■ ■■ benzoin. A vegetable acid obtained from benzoin. 

— bombic. An animal acid obtained from silk worms. 

■ boracic. A peculiar ackl obtained from borax. 

" ■ ■ compkoric. A vegetable acid obtained from cam- 
phor. 
■■ " ■■ carbonic. A combination of carbon and oxygen. 
— — chromic. A compound of chrome and oxygen. 

— citric. A vegetable acid obtained from lemons. 
Jluoric. A peculiaracid obtained from fluorspar. 

gallic. A vegetable acid procured from galls. 

lactic. An animal acid prepared from whey. 
— — malic. A vegetable acid found in the juice of 

apples and several other fruits. 
— — molybdic. A compound of molydena and oxygen. 



GLOSSARY. 147 

Acid mucous. A vegetable acid obtained from gum 
arabic. 

1 ' muriatic. Obtained from sea salt ; its base is un- 
known. 

oxy muriatic. Formed with muriatic acid and 

oxygen. 

nitric. A compound of tirnogen and oxygen. 

oxalic. A vegetable acid found in the juice of 

sorrel, it may also be obtained from vinegar and 
several other substances, by distillation wich ni- 
tric acid. 

— — phosphoric. A compound of oxygen and phos- 
phorus. 

prussic An animal acid, composed of hydrogen* 
nitrogen, and carbon. 

— sebacic. An animal acid obtained from fat. 

■ succinic. A peculiar acid obtained from amber. 

■ ■ sulphuric. A compound of sulphur and oxygen. 

* — — tartar ous. A peculiar acid found in the cream 
of tartar of commerce. 

Aeriform fluids. Fluid substances combined with an 
additional portion of caloric, sufficient to give 
them the form of gas, or vapour. 

..Affinity y chemical. A term used to express that pe- 
culiar propensity, which different species of mat- 
ter have to unite with each other. 

_ of aggregation. A force by which two bo- 
dies of the same kind tend to unite, and by which 
an aggregate is formed, without the chemical pro- 
perties of the substances being at all changed. 
• of composition. A force by which substan- 



ces of different kinds unite, and by which matter 
is formed, whose properties are different from 
those of the bodies before their combination. 
This attraction is stronger in proportion as the 
nature of the bodies is different, between which 
it is exerted. It is the same with chemical affinity. 



H8 GLOSSARY. 

Agate. A precidus stone of the lowest class, almo'St 
transparent and of a vitreous appearance. 

Aggregates. Substances whose parts are united by 
cohesive and not by chemical attraction. 

Alabaster. Sulphate of lime. 

Albumen. It is that peculiar animal substance, which 
forms the cerum of the blood, the white of eggs, 
and other compounds. 

Alchemy. The imaginary art of transmuting the ba- 
ser metals to gold, also furnishing an universal 
medicine and menstruum. 

Alcohol. Rectified spirits of wine. 

Alembic. The term formerly given to the still used 
by chemists for their distillation. 

Alkalies. Peculiar substances which have a burning, 
and caustic taste, and a strong tendency to com- 
bination. When united with acids, they form 
mild alkaline salts. 

Alloys. A combination of any two metals', except 
mercury, is called an alloy. Thus gold is alloyed 
either with silver or copper, for the purposes of 
coinage. 

diluvial. By alluvial depositions, is meant the soil 
which has been formed by the destruction of the 
mountains, and the washing down of their par- 
ticles, by torrents of water. 

Ammonia. Is the volatile alkali, for in a pure state it 
always exists in an aeriform fluid of a pungent 
smell ; with the muriatic acid it forms the sal 
ammoniac of commerce. 

Amalgam, A combination or mixture of mercury 
with any other metal, is called an amalgam, and 
it is always soft, like butter. 

Amber. A beautiful bituminous substance of a yellow 
or brown colour, which takes a good polish, and 
after a slight rubbing becomes electric. It was 
Called electrum by the ancients, and hence the 
word electricity. 



GLOSSARY. 149 

Amethyst. A gem of a violet colour and great bril- 
liancy, said to be as hard as the sapphire or ruby, 
from which it only differs in colour. 
Ammoniacal salts. Salts formed with ammonia, or 

volatile alkali. 
Analysis. The resolution of a substance into its con- 
stituent parts, for the purpose of chemical ex- 
amination. 
Annealing. The art of rendering substances tough, 
which are naturally hard and brittle. Glass and 
iron are annealed by gradual cooling ; brass and 
copper by heating, and then suddenly plunging 
them in cold water. 

Antisefitic. Resisting putrefaction. 

Apparatus, chemical. Tins term is descriptive 
laboratory utensils made use of in a chemical 
of all the, The principal are stills, furnaces, 
crucibles, retorts, receivers, matrasses, worm 
tubs, pneumatic troughs, thermometers, &c. 

Apparatus, fineumatic. Are such as are applied to 
operations on gaseous or aeriform fluids only. 

Areometer. A graduated glass instrument with a 
bulb, by which the weight or gravity of liquids 
are ascertained. 

Argillaceous. A term descriptive of those earths 
which contain alumine or clay. 

Aroma. A term used for the odour which arises from 
certain vegetables, or their infusions. 

Arseniates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
substance, with the acid of arsenic. 

Asfihaltum. A bituminous substance found in a soft 
or liquid state on the surface of the dead seaX 
which by age grows dry and hard. It is also 
found in the earth in several parts of the world. 1 

*fttmosfiheres. This term is used to express the dei 
pree of additional pressure given to fluids. Thus, 
If in order to impregnate water with any of the 
gases, we give it a pressure of 15 lbs. upon every 



ISO GLOSSARY, 

square inch of surface, we are said to give it one 
atmosphere, if 30 lbs. two atmospheres, &c. 

Attraction. Chemical attraction is a term synony- 
mous with affinity: which see. 

Azote. A name given by the French chemists to ni- 
trogen, to which, being the most proper, the 
reader is referred. 

B 

Balloon. A term given by the French to their sphe- 
rical chemical receivers. 

Balaams. Certain aromatic resinous substances, 
which are obtained from trees by incisions. 

Barometer. An instrument which shows the varia- 
tion of the pressure of the atmosphere, by the 
rise or fall of a column of mercury in a gradua- 
ted glass tube. 

Barytes. The most ponderous of the earths, whence 
its name 

Base. A chemical term, usually applied to denote 
the earth, the alkali, or the metal which is com- 
bined with an acid to form a salt. 

Baths. Vessels for distillation or digestion, contri- 
ved to transmit heat gradually and regularly. 

Bath-sand. Vessels filled in part with dry sand, in 
which those retorts are placed which require a 
greater heat than can be given by boiling water. 

Bath-nvater. Vessels of boiling water, in which other 
vessels containing the matters to be distilled or 
digested, are placed. 

Benzoates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with the benzoic acid. 

Beril. A variety of the emerald. 

Bismuth. One of the metals, and the only one which, 
has yet been had in a chrystalline state by art. 

Bittern. The liquor which remains after the crys- 
tallization of muriate of soda (sea-salt). It gen- 



GLOSSARY. 151 

erally contains sulphate of magnesia, and a 

small portion of sulphate of soda. 
Bitumen. A generic term, applied to a variety of 

fossil inflammable substances, such as coal. 
Blowpipe. An instrument to increase and direct the 

flame of a lamp for the analysis of minerals, and 

for other chemical purposes. 
Bolthead. A round chemical vessel with a long neckg 

usually employed for digestions. It is also called 

a matrass. 
Borates. Salts formed by the combination of any 

base with the acid of borax. 
But'on. A name given to the small round piece of 

metal which is found at the bottom of a crucible* 

after a metallic ore, or an oxide of metal has 

been reduced, or melted. 



Calamine. A native oxide of zinc. 

Calomel. The mild muriate of mercury. 

Calcareous. A chemical term formerly applied to 
describe chalk, marble, and all other combina- 
tions of lime with carbonic acid. 

Calcination. The application of heat to saline, me- 
tallic, or other substances ; so regulated as to de- 
prive them of moisture, 8cc, and yet preserve 
them in a pulverulent form. 

Caloric. The chemical term for the matter of heat. 

Calorimeter. An instrument for ascertaining the quan- 
tity of caloric disengaged from any substance 
that may be the object of experiment. 

Calx. An old term made use of to describe a metal* 
lie oxide. 

Camphor. A peculiar vegetable substance extracted 
from the roots, wood, and leaves of two species 
of laurus. It is brought from China, Sumatra,, 
and Borneo. 



152 GLOSSARY. 

Camfihorates. Salts formed by the combination of 
any base with the camphoric acid. 

Caoutchouc. Termed Indian rubber, a vegetable sub- 
stance obtained from the milky juice of different 
plants in hot countries. 

Capillary. A term usually applied to the rise of the 
sap in vegetables, or the rise of any fluid in very 
small tubes, owing to a peculiar kind of attrac- 
tion, called capillary attraction. 

Capsules. Are small saucers of clay for roasting 
samples of ores, to ascertain their value. 

Caftutmortuum. A term signifying dead head, being 
that which remains in a retort after distillation 
to dryness. See residuum, which is the modern 
term. 

Carbon. The basis of charcoal. 

Carbonates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with carbonic acid. 

Carburets* Compound substances, of which carbon 
forms one of the constituent parts. Thus plum- 
bago, which is composed of carbon and iron, is 
called carburet of iron. 

Causticity. That quality in certain substances, by 
which they burn or corrode animal bodies to 
which they are applied. 

Cementation. A process by which metals are puri- 
fied or changed in their qualities by heat, with- 
out fusion, by means of a composition, called a 
cement, with which they are covered. 

Thus iron by being kept a long time in a cer- 
tain degree of heat, surrounded by charcoal 
powder, is converted into steel. 

Ceruse. The white oxide of lead. 

Chalybeate. A term employed to designate such mi~ 
neral springs as owe their virtues to iron. The 
term refers to the early artizans who are stated 
to have been employed in the fabrication of this 



GLOSSARY* 15$ 

metal on the banks of the river Pontus, the Cha- 
ly beans (Chalybes nudi, see Virgil's Georgics.) 

Charcoal Wood burnt in close vessels : it is an oxide 
of carbon, and generally contains a small por- 
tion of salts and earth. Its carbonaceous matter 
may be converted by combustion into carbonic 
acid gas. 

Chromates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with the chromic acid. 

Chrysolite. A precious stone, which becomes electric 
by being rubbed. The chrysolite of the ancients 
was the same gem which is now called topaz. 

Cinnabar. The red sulphuret of mercury. 

Citrates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with citric acid. 

Coal. A term applied to the residuum of any dry 
distillation of animal or vegetable matters. 

Cohesion. A force inherent in all the particles of all 
substances, excepting light and caloric, which 
prevents bodies from falling in pieces. 

Cohobation. When a distilled fluid is poured agaUv 
upon the matter from which it was distilled, in 
order to make it stronger, it is called cohobation. 

Coke or Coak. The residuum after the dispersion by 
heat of the volatile products of pit-coal in close 
vessels. 

Cold. The negation of caloric. The temperatures of 
bodies, when diminished by artificial means, 
leave the impression of cold in proportion to the 
rapidity with which they abstract heat from the 
sentient living body in their neighbourhood. The 
absolute annihilation of the matter of heat would 
convert all aeriform and liquid matter to an inert 
lifeless and frigid mass; chaos would come again* 
Caloric, the cause of warmth, is the great ani- 
mator, is the very soul of matter. 

Coloration, of vegetables, one of the most attractive 
phenomena of vegetation, it is a process analo- 
gous to oxidation. 



154 GLOSSARY. 

Combination. A term expressive of a true chemical 
union of two or more substances, in opposition to 
mere mechanical mixture. 

Combustibles. Certain substances which are capa- 
ble of combining more or less rapidly with ox- 
ygen. They are divided by chemists into simple 
and compound combustibles. 

Combustion The act of absorption of oxygen, by 
combustible bodies from atmospheric or vital air, 

Comminution. The reduction of hard bodies into 
small particles, by pounding, 8cc. By this pro- 
cess the heaviest substances may be made to 
float in the lightest fluids. 

Composition. See Synthesis. 

Compounds^ may be binary, ternary, or quaternary, 
according as they are formed of two, three, or 
four elements. 

Concentration. The act of increasing the specific 
gravity of bodies. The term is usually applied 
to fluids which are rendered stronger by evapora- 
ting a portion of the water which they contain. 

Concretion. The art of converting liquids, or airs, or 
both to a state of palpable solidity. 

Condensation. The act of bringing t;he component 
parts of vapour, or gas, nearer together by pres- 
sure, or by colds. 

Thus atmospheric air may be condensed by 
pressure, and aqueous vapour by the substraction 
of caloric, till it is converted into water. 

Copperas. The green sulphate of iron. 

Cornelian. A variety of silex with the oxide of iron. 

Crucibles. Vessels of indispensable use in chemistry, 
in the various operations of fusion by heat. They 
are made of baked earth, or metal, in the form 
of an inverted cone. 

Crystallization. An operation of nature, in which 
various earths, salts, and metallic substances 



GLOSSARY. 155 

pass from a fluid to a solid state, assuming certain 
determinate geometrical figures. 

Crystallization, water of. That portion which is com- 
bined with salts in the act of crystallizing, and 
becomes a component part of them. 

Cupel. A vessel made of burnt bones, mixed with a 
small proportion of clay and water. It is used 
whenever gold and silver are refined, by melt- 
ing them with lead. The process is called cu- 
pellation. 

Cupellation. Ail gold and silver wares are tried by 
this process, and marked in consequence in a pe- 
culiar way, to guard the public against frauds, 
Hence the artist often terms his cupel tests. 

D 

Decombustion. Synonymous with deoxidation. 
Decomposition. The separation of the constituent 
principles of compound bodies by chemical means. 

Decrepitation. The sudden decomposition of salts, 
attended with a crackling noise when thrown in- 
to a red-hot crucible, or on an open fire. 

Deflagration. The vivid combustion that is produced 
whenever nitre, mixed with an inflammable sub- 
stance, is exposed to a red heat.. 

This may be attributed to the extrication of 
oxygen from the nitre, and its being transferred 
to the inflammable body ; as any of the nitrates 
or oxygenized muriates will produce the same 
effect. 

Deliquesce. The tendency which some bodies have 
to become liquid by absorbing moisture from the 
atmosphere or elsewhere. Liquids of some kinds 
have also this property. Pure potash in a con- 
crete state even deliquesces, and the sulphuric 



156 GLOSSARY. 

acid does the same ; it is remarkable that their 
combination produces a salt, the sulphate of pot- 
ash, which has no such property, 

Deliquium, Is the state of potash, or any deliquescent 
salt, when it has so far deliquesced by exposure 
to the air, as to have become a liquid 

Deoxidate, or deoxidize. Todeprive a body of oxygen. 

Deoxidation. A term made use of by some writers 
to express that operation by which one substance 
deprives another of its oxygen. 

Dephlegmate. To deprive any substance entirely of 
its water, it is therefore a process the reverse of 
deliquescence. 

Depuration. The purging or separating any liquid 
in a state of purity from its fxces or lees. 

Desicate, Is to deprive of moisture any substance 
whether liquid or concrete. Explosion is conse- 
quent to the instantaneous conversion of solids 
into gases, or of gasses into liquids or solids. Gun- 
powder elucidates the first process on being de- 
composed in close vessels, and the effect of kind- 
ling oxygen and hydrogen gases,the latter process. 

Detonation. An explosion with noise. It is most com- 
monly applied to the explosion of nitre when 
thrown upon heated charcoal. 

Diamond. Carbon in a state of high purity, hitherto 
inimitable by art, though we are probably on the 
verge of accomplishing this lovely operation of 
nature. 

Digester. An instrument by means whereof the boil- 
ing point of water may be elevated far beyond 
212°. when it becomes a solvent of many substan- 
ces, which could not by ordinary decoction be 
liquified. 

Digestion. The effect produced by the continued 
soaking of a solid substance in a liquid, with the 
application of heat. 

Digester 9 Papiri *s. An apparatus for reducing animal 



GLOSSARY. 157 

or vegetable substances to a pulp or jelly expe- 
ditiously. 

Distillation, A process for separating the volatile 
parts of a substance from the more fixed, and 
preserving them both in a state of separation. 

Docimacy. The art of assaying the ores of metals. 

Ductility. A quality of certain bodies, in consequence 
of which they may be drawn out into wire witl*-" 
out fracture, 

Dulcification. The combination of mineral acids with 
alcohol. Thus we have dulcified spirit of vitriol, 
&c. 

Dyeing. The art of transferring the colouring matter 
of one body to another, so that it shall be durably 
fixed ; it depends on the exertion of particular 
affinities between the colouring matters and the 
substances to which they are applied, (Parkin- 
son), which is accomplished however in most 
instances by the means of mordants only. 

E 

Rbulition, Is always attended by the conversion of a 
liquid into an elastic fluid, as water into steam. 
The temperatures at which liquids boil is influ- 
enced by atmospheric pressure, therefore the 
boiling point of fluids varies as the weight of the 
incumbent atmosphere. See Digester. 

Mdulcoration. Expressive of the purification of a 
substance by washing with water. 

Effervescence. An intestine motion which takes 
place in certain bodies, occasioned by the sud- 
den escape of a gaseous' substance. 

Efflorescence. A term commonly applied to those 
saline crystals, which become pulverulent on 
exposure to the air, in consequence of the loss 
of a part of the water of crystallization. 
O 



158 GLOSSARY. 

Efflux. The spontaneous oozing of the juices of ve- 
getables by incision or otherwise. 

Elasticity. A force in bodies, by which they endea- 
vour to restore themselves to the posture from 
whence they were displaced by any external 
force. 

Elastic fluids. A name sometimes given to vapours 
and gases. Vapour is called an elastic fluid ; gas, 
a liermanently elastic fluid. 

Elective. A name applied to chemical attraction, 
whereby various bodies having an affinity to any 
particular substance, and being presented to it 
in a mixed state, it unites with one and rejects 
all the rest. The term is less used than former- 
ly, as it would appear to imply volition on the 
part of animate matter. 

Elective attractions. A term used by Bergman and 
others, to designate what we now express by the 
words chemical affinity. 

Elutriation. The operation of pulverizing metallic 
ores or other substances, and then mixing them 
with water, so that the lighter parts which are 
capable of suspension may be poured off. 

Electricity. A property in bodies whereby when rub- 
bed, they draw substances, emit flame, and may 
be filled with such a quantity of the electric fluid 
as if discharged at once upon a human body 
would endanger life. Johnson. 

Elements. The simple, constituent parts of bodies, 
which are incapable of decomposition ; they are 
frequently called principles. See " Simple Sub- 
stances." 

Eliquation. An operation whereby one substance is 
separated from another by fusion. It consists 
in giving the mass a degree of heat that will 
make the more fusible matter melt or flow, and 
not the other. 

Emerald. A transparent precious stone of a green 



GL6SSARY. 159 

colour, nearly of the same hardness as the gar- 
net or agate, but inferior to the topaz and ruby. 

Emery. An ore of iron. 

Empyreuma. A peculiar and indescribably disagree- 
able smell, arising from the burning of animal 
and vegetable matter in close vessels. 

Enamels. Their tints are owing to the fixation of ox- 
ygen in the metallic oxides employed in the pro- 
cess. 

Efisom salt. Sulphate of magnesia. 

Eolipile. A copper vessel with a small orifice, and 
partly filled with water. It is made hot, in order 
that the vapour of the water may rush out with 
violence, and carry a stream of air with it to in- 
crease the intensity of fire. 

Essences. What are called essences, in chemistry 
and pharmacy, are the essential oils obtained by 
distillation from odoriferous vegetable substances. 

Essential salts. The saline substances found in plants, 
and which are held in solution by the Water 
wherein they are infused. They are obtained by 
evaporation and cooling. 

Ethers. Volatile liquids formed by the distillation of 
some of the acids with alcohol. 

Etching. The an of coroding copper, lead, or glass 
by suitable chemical agents. 

Etiolation. The blanching of vegetables by prevent- 
ing the access of light. 

Eudiometer. An instrument invented by Dr. Priest-, 
ley, for determining the purity of any given por- 
tion of atmospheric air. The science of inves- 
tigating the different kinds of gases, is called 
eudiometry. 

Evaporation The conversion of fluids into vapour by 
heat. 

Expression. A term used in pharmacy, denoting 
the act of forcing out the juices and oils of plants 



160 GLOSS ARV. 

by means of a press. By a similar term, the ex* 
pressed are distinguished from the essential oils. 

Exsiccation. The act of drying moist bodies. It is 
effected in two ways ; by exhaling the aqueous 
particles by the application of heat or atmos- 
pheric air, and by absorbing the moisture with 
soft and spongy substances. 

Extracts. The soluble parts of vegetable substances, 
first dissolved in spirit or water, and then redu- 
ced to the consistence of a thick syrup, or paste* 
by evaporation. 



Farina, Or flour, a species of fecula. 

Fat. An oily concrete animal substance, composed of 
sebacic acid, and carbon. 

Fecula, vegetables. Differs from mucilage only in be- 
ing insoluble in cold water, in which liquid it 
falls very speedily ; by caloric or in hot water, it 
assumes all the properties of mucilage. Paper 
is a faecula. Indigo has been termed a colouring 
fxcula. 

Fermentation. A peculiar spontaneous motion, which 
takes place in all vegetable matter when exposed 
for a certain time to a proper degree of tempera- 
ture. 

Fibrin is that white fibrous substance left after elu- 
iriation of the coagulum of blood, and which also 
composes the principal part of the animal fibre. 
It shrivels like parchment on exposure to heat. 
It has been thought to be the seat of irritability, 
and the medium by which the energies of life 
are directed to the several organs. 

Filtration. A chemical process for the purifying of 
liquid substances. Blotting paper supported by 
a funnel, is commonly made use of; but for ex- 
pensive liquors, chemists generally use a little 



GLOSSARY. 161 

carded cotton, lightly pressed into the tube of a 
glass funnel. 

Fire. That appearance produced from the combined 
effects of light and heat, at the same time disen- 
gaged in the act of combustion. 

Fixity. A term applicable to the property of some 
bodies of bearing a great heat without being vola- 
tilized. 

Flowers, In chemical language, are solid dry sub- 
stances reduced to a powder by sublimation. 
Thus we have flowers of arsenic, of sal ammo- 
niac, and sulphur, &c, which are these substan- 
ces unaltered, except m appearance. 

Fluates. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with fluoric acid. 

Fluidity. A term applied to all liquid substances. 
Solids are converted to fluids by combining with 
a certain portion of caloric. 

Flux, A substance which is mixed with metallic 
ores, or other bodies, to promote their fusion ; 
as an alkali is mixed with silex, in order to form 
glass. 

Fossil. See Mineral, with which it is synonymous, 

Freezing. The point at which water assumes a 
chrystalline form. 

Fuliginous. A term sometimes made use of in des- 
cribing certain vapours which arise in chemical 
operations, having the thick appearance of 
smoke. 

Fuhnination. Thundering, or explosion with noise. 
We have fulminating silver, fulminating gold, 
and other fulminating powders, which explode 
with a loud report by friction, or when slightly 
heated. 

Furnaces, Chemical vessels of various forms for the 
fusion of ores, or other operations which require 
heat. 

«- — blast. Are built for making iron, smelting 

o2 



162 . GLOSSARY. 

ores, &c. They are so contrived that their heat 
is much increased by means of powerful bel- 
lows. A blackmith's forge is a kind of blast fur- 
nace. 

furnaces, wind. Chemical furnaces for intense heat, 
so constructed that they draw with great force, 
without the use of bellows. 

Fusion. The state of a body which was solid in the 
temperature of the atmosphere, and is now ren- 
dered fluid by the artificial application of heat. 

G 

Galena, or the black ore of lead. This, which is the 
most common of all lead ores, is frequently dis- 
tinguished by the name of potter's lead ore. 

p. An ere of zinc, known in the English mine 

countries, by the name of black jack, or mock 
lead. 

Gallates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with gallic acid. 

Galvanism. Supposed to be essentially the same prin- 
ciple as electricity. 

Garnet. A stone which when transparent and of a 
fine colour is reckoned among gems. 

Gas. All solid substances when converted into per- 
manently elastic fluids by caloric, are called 
gases. 

Gases are then of necessity compounds formed by the 
union of a base, with a sufficient portion of the 
matter of heat. 

Gaseous. Having the nature and properties of gas. 

Gazometer. A name given to a variety of utensils 
and apparatus, -contrived to measure, collect, 
preserve, or mix the different %■' 

Gelatine. A chemical term for animal jelly or glue. 
It exists particularly in the tendons and the skin 
of animals. 

Glass. Some metallic oxides, when fused, are called 



GLOSSARY. 163 

glass. They have somewhat of x^esemblance to 
common glass. 

Glass, phosphoric. A vitreous, insipid, insoluble sub- 
stance, procured by boiling down phosphoric acid 
to a syrup, and then melting it by an increased 
heat. 

Glucine. A peculiar earth which has been found in 
emerald and beryl. 

Gluten. A vegetable substance somewhat similar to 
animal gelatine or glue. It is the glutem in 
wheat flour which gives it the property of making 
good bread, and adhesive paste. 

Grain. The smallest weight made use of by chemical 
writers. Twenty grains make a scruple ; 3 
scruples a drachm ; 8 drachms, or 480 grains, 
make an ounce ; 12 ounces, or 5/60 grains, a 
pound troy. The avoirdupois pound contains 
7G00 grains. 

Granite. A compound rock consisting of quartz, felt 
spar and mica. 

Granulation. The operation of pouring a melted me- 
tal into water, in order to divide it into small par- 
ticles, for chemical purposes. Tin is thus granu- 
lated by the dyers before it is dissolved in the 
proper acid ; and lead is also treated in the same 
way in order to make small shot. 

Gravity. That property by which bodies move to- 
wards each other, in proportion to their respec- 
tive quantities of matter. This is the property 
by which bodies fall to the earth. 

Gravity, specific. This differs from absolute gravity 
in as much as it is the weight of a given measure 
of any solid -or fluid body, compared with, the 
same measure of distilled water.. 

Gum. Mucilaginous exudations from certain trees. 
Gum consists of lime, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, 
and nitrogen, with a little phosphoric acid, 
Heat. See Calork* 



154* GLOSSARY* 

Hefiar % or Liver. The name formerly given to the 
combination of sulphur with alkali. It is now 
called sulphuret of potash, &c. instead of liver of 
sulphur. 

Hefiatic gas. The old name for sulphuretted hydro- 
gen gas. 

Hermetically. A term applied to the closing of the 
orifice of a tube, or vessel, so as to render it air- 
tight. 

It is usually done by melting the end of the 
tube by means of a blow-pipe. 

Horn-silver luna-cornua, the muriate of silver. 

Hyacinth. A precious stone of an orange red, nearly 
as hard as rock crystal. 

Hydrogen. A simple substance ; one of the constituent 
parts of water. 

■ gas. Solid hydrogen united with a large 

portion of caloric. It is the lightest of all the 
known gases. It was formerly called inflamma- 
ble air. 

Hydrometers. Instruments for ascertaining the spe- 
cific gravity of spirituous liquors, or other ftuids. 

Hygrometers. Instruments for ascertaining the de- 
gree of moisture in atmospheric air. 

Hyfieroxygenized. A term applyed to substances 
which are combined with the largest possible 
quantity of oxygen. We have muriatic acid, oxy- 
genized muriatic acid, and hyperoxygenized mu- 
riatic acid. 



Ice. Is the chrystalline form of water. 

Incandescence. Imports a white heat. 

Incineration. The burning of vegetables for the sake 
of their ashes. It is usually applied to the burn- 
ing of kelp » for making alkali or soda. 

Inflammation, A phenomenon which takes place on 



OLOSSx\RY. 165 

mixing certain substances. The mixture of oil of 
turpentine with strong nitrous acid, is an instance 
of this peculiar chemical effect. 

Infusion. A simple operation to procure the salts, 
juices, and other virtues of vegetables, by means 
- of water. 

Ink. Sympathetic (green) the muriate of cobalt. 

Integrant particles. The most minute particles into 
which any substance can be divided similar to 
each other, and to the substance of which they 
are parts, are termed its integrant particles. 

Intermediates. A term made use of when speaking 
of chemical affinity. Oil, for example, has no af- 
finity to water, unless it be previously combined 
with an alkili ; it then becomes soap, and the al- 
kali is said to be the intermedium which occa- 
sions the union. 

K. 

Kali. A genus of marine plants, which is burnt to 
procure mineral alkali by afterwards lixiviating 
the ashes. 

L. 

Laboratory. A room fitted up with apparatus for the 
performance of chemical operations. 

Lac. A resin, and not, as improperly termed, a gum. 

Lactates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with lactic acid. 

Lakes. Certain colours made by combining the co- 
louring matter of cochineal, or of certain vege- 
tables with pure alumine, or with oxide of tin, 
zinc, 8cc. 

Lamp, drgand's, A kind of lamp much used for 
chemical experiments. It is made on the prin- 
ciples of a wind furnace, and thus produces a 
great degree of light and heat, without smoke. 



166 GLOSSARY. 

Lena. A glass, convex on both sides, for concentra- 
ting the rays of the sun. It is employed by che- 
mists in fusing refractory substances which can- 
not be operated upon by an ordinary degree of 
heat. 

Levigation. The grinding down of hard substances 
to an impalpable powder on a stone with a mul- 
ler, or in a mill adapted to the purpose. 

Liquefaction. The change of a solid to the state of a 
fluid, occasioned by the combination of caloric. 

Litharge. An oxide of lead which appears in a state 
of vitrification. It is formed in the process of 
separating silver from lead. 

Lixiviation. The solution of an alkali or a salt in 
water, or in some other fluid, in order to form a 
lixivium. 

Lixivium. A fluid impregnated with an alkali or 
with a salt. 

Lute. A composition for closing the junctures of 
chemical vessels to prevent the escape of gass 
or vapour in distillation. 

M. 

Maceration. The steeping of a solid body in a fluid 
in order to soften it, without impregnating the 
fluid. 

Magistery. The precipitated or sublimed oxides of 
certain metals were so termed by the alche- 
mists. As for example, fiearl white is the ma- 
gistery of bismuth. 

Malates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with the malic acid. 

Maleability. That property of metals which gives 

i them the capacity of being extended and flat- 
tened by hammering. 

Manna. A sort of sugar. 

Marble. Carbonate of lime. 



GLOSSARY. 167 

Marcasite. Native sulphuret of iron, or pyrites. 

Malleability. The flexible or elastic nature induced 
in various metals, by annealing, or naturally. It 
is contradistinguished with brittleness. 

Marie, Compounds of carbonate of lime and sand, or 
clay, or both. It differs from lime-stone bybecom* 
ing diffused when blended with water equally, as 
clay would ; hence it is carbonate of lime, in such 
a state, as to yield an impalpable powder, with- 
out exposure to the furnace, or lime-kiln. 

Manganese. Probably a corruption of magnes, the 
loadstone, because of its property of destroying 
or neutralizing the colouring matter of glass-; 
The black oxide of this metal is the magnet a 
(manganese J of the glassmakers. It is true, 
that in a minute portion added to alkali in solu- 
tion, it becomes changed to blue, or if iron be 
present, to green. With much water it becomes 
violet and red, and afterwards, the coloured par- 
ticles will precipitate, and change to black, 
Hence, the mineral chamceleon, so termed. 

Massicot. A name given to the yellow oxide of lead, 
as minium is applied to the red oxide. 

Matrass. Another name for a bolt-head, which see. 

Matrix. The bed in which a metallic ore is found. 

Menstruum. The fluid in which a solid body is dis- 
solved. Thus water is a menstruum for salts, 
gums, &c, and spirit of wine for resins. 

Mephitis. Nitrogen or azotic gas. 

Metallic oxides. Metals combined with oxygen. By 
this process they are generally reduced to a pul- 
verulent form; are changed from combustible to 
incombustible substances, and receive the pro- 
perty of being soluble in acids. 

irritation. The energy of galvanism upon 
the nervous fibre. 

■ ■ i — » sulphur ets are abundant in nature ; they 
imply compounds of sulphur and metallic bases 
onlj. 



163 GLOSSARY. 

Metallic alloys. Compounds of metals. The chemical 
union of two or more metals is so called. Instan- 
ces are numerous. All the amalgams are refer- 
rable to this head — bell-metal, brass, bronze, 
gun-metal, latten, pinchbeck, princes'-metal, 
similor, and tombac, are of this kind. 

Mica, A stone which in its purest state is colourless, 
but either from a less intimate combination, or 
from mixture of foreign substances, is found of 
different colours ; the white and yellow of which 
have a metallic appearance, but not greasy to 
the touch, which distinguishes it from talc. 

Mineral. Any natural substance of a metallic, ear- 
thy, or saline nature, whether simple or com- 
pound, is deemed a mineral. 

Miner alizers. Substances which are combined with 
metals in their ores are sometimes termed mine- 
ralizers ; as sulphur, arsenic, carbonic acid, 8cc a 

Mineralogy. The science of fossils and minerals. 

Mineral waters. Waters which hold some metal, 
earth, or salt in solution. They are frequently 
termed medicinal Hvaters. 

Minium. The red oxide of leach 

Molecule, The molecules of bodies are those ulti- 
mate particles of matter which cannot be de- 
composed by any chemical means. 

Molybdates. Combinations of the molybdic acid and 
different bases. The Carynthian molybdate of 
lead is a specimen of native yellow lead ore. 

Mordants, Substances which have a chemical affini- 
ty for particular colours ; they are employed by 
the dyers as a bond to unite the colour with the 
cloth intended to be dyed. 

Mother waters, or Mothers. The liquors which are 
left after the chrystalization of any salts. 

Mucilage. A glutinous matter obtained from vegeta- 
bles, transparent and tasteless, soluble in water, 



GLOSSARY. 169 

but not in spirit of wine. 1% chiefly consists of 
carbon and hydrogen, with a little oxygen. 

Muffle, A semi-cylindrical utensil, resembling the 
tilt of a boat, made of baked clay ; its use is 
that of a cover to cupels in the assay furnace,, 
to prevent the charcoal from falling upon the 
metal, or whatever is the subject of experiment. 

Muriates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with muriatic acid. 



N 

Nafron. One of the names for mineral alkali, or soda. 

Nectar. The aromatic and saccharine juices of plants* 
from which honey is formed. 

Neutralize. When two or more substances mutually 
disguise each other's properties by being in equal 
proportions, or by saturating each other, they are 
said to be neutralized. 

Neutrals alt. A substance formed by the union of an 
acid with an alkali, an earth, or a metallic oxide, 
in such proportions as to saturate both the base 
and the acid 

Nitrates. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with nitric acid. 

Nitrogen. A simple substance, by the French chem- 
ists called aiote. It enters into a variety of com- 
pounds, and forms more than three pahs in four of 
atmospheric air. 

Nomenclature. The language of chemical science.*- 
The names of compounds are calculated to shew 
the kind and nature of the bodies which compose 
them. It admits of nothing arbitrary, and is capa* 
ble of adaptation to future discoveries. The his- 
tory of salts in general mark its many advantages 
over the arbitrary language of the old chemists* 



170 GLOSSARY. 

O. 

Ochres. Various combinations of the earths with oxide., 

or carbonate of iron. 
Oil. A fluid substance well known. It is composed of 

hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon. 
Opal. A precious stone, which is the most beautiful of 

all the flint kind, owing to the changeable appear- 

ance of its colours by reflection and refraction. 
Ores. Metallic earths, which frequently contain several 

extraneous matters, such as sulphur, arsenic, &c. 
Organic compounds, Are distinguished from factitious 

chemical products, by having had, or possessing 

vitality. 
Orpiment. The yellow sulphuret of arsenic. 
Oxalates. Salts formed by the combination of any base 

with oxalic acid. 
Oxide. Any substance combined with oxygen, in a pro- 
portion not sufficient to produce acidity. 
Qxidize To combine oxygen without producing acidity* 
Oxidizement. The operation b; which any substance is 

combined with oxygen, in a degree not sufficient to 

produce acidity. 
Oxygen. A simple substance composing the greatest 

part of water, and part of atmospheric air. 
..« ii gas. Oxygen converted to a gaseous state by 

caloric* It it also called vital air. It forms nearly 

one fourth of atmospheric air. 
Oxygenize. To acidify a substance by oxygen. Synony* 

mous with Oxygenate. 

P. 

Taper. Its chemical analysis affords the same products 
as fecula. 

Particles, Are either constituent or integrant. The former 
are not farther decomposable by chemical means, 
the latter are the infinitely small molecules, into 
which compounds are mechanically divisible, but in- 
tegrant particles themselves, consist of constituent 
particles, into which it is presumed they aic sepa- 
rable by decomposition. 



GLOSSARY. 171 

Parting. The operation of separating gold from silver, 
by means of nitrous acid, and other mediums. 

Pellicle. A thin skin which forms on the surface of saline 
solutions and other liquors, when boiled down to a 
certain strength. 

Pereussin. The act of striking a body. 

Petrifaction. When a mineral water holding earthy mat- 
ter in solution, is dissipated, or loses the power by 
which such mineral matter is suspended, the earth 
is gradually deposited, and if it falls upon vegetable 
matters, encrusts and envelopes them so, as in due 
time to have the appearance of stone. 

Petroleum. Liquid bitumen. 

Phlogiston. An old chemical name for an imaginary sub- 
stance, supposed to be a combination of fire with 
some other matter, and a constituent part of all in* 
flammable bodies and of many other substances. 
Posphates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with phosphoric acid. 

Phosphites. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with phosphorus acid. 

Phosphorus. One of the simple concrete combustible 
bodies. It has its name from its spontaneous com- 
bustion with light, at the lowest known temperature 
when exposed to the air of the atmosphere. 

Phosphor i of Baldwin* has the property of emitting light 
in the dark, after being heated. It is the nitrate 
of lime. 

Phosphorus, Bolognian t has the same qualities. It is the; 
sulphate of barytes. 

Phosphurets. Substances formed by an union with phos- 
phorus. Thus we have phosphuret of lime, phos- 
phuretted hydrogen, &c. 

Plumbago. Carburet of iron, or the black-lead of com- 
merce 

Pneumatic. Any thing relating to the airs and gas"es; 

.*_, trough. A vessel filled in part with water or 

mei\ ury, for the purpose of collecting gases, so 
that they may be readily removed from one vessel 
to another* 



172 G± SSARY. 

Precipitate, Any matter which, having been dissolved in 
a fluid, falls to the bottom of the vessel. 

Precipitation* That chemical process by which bodies 
dissolved, mixed, or suspended in a fluid, are se- 
parated from that fluid, and made to gravitate to 
the bottom of the vessel. 

Principles of bodies* Synonymous with Elements ; which 
see. 

Ptussiates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with prussic acid. 

Pulverization. The reducing of any body to powder, 
or overcoming mechanically the attraction of cohe- 
sion to a considerable extent. 

Purification. The separation of all foreign matter 
from any substance or preparation, whether simple 
or compound. 

Putrefaction. The last fermentative process of nature, by 
which bodies are decomposed so as to separate 
their principles, for the purpose of re-uniting them 
by future attractions, in the production of new com- 
positions. 

Pyrites. An abundant mineral found on the English 
coasts, and elewhere. Some are sulphurets of iron, 
and others sulphurets of copper, with a portion of 
alumine and silex 

Pyrites* 'martial- That species of pyrites which con- 
tains iron for its basis. 

Pyrometer. An instrument invented by Mr. Wedg- 
wood for ascertaining the degrees of heat in furna- 
ces and intense fires. 

Pyrophori. Substances which readily take fire, even 
spontaneously, on exposure to a dampish atmos- 
phere, but not to perfectly dry air. 



§>uartation. A term used by refiners in a certain opera- 
tion of parting. 

Quartz. A name given to a variety of siliceous earths f 
mixed with a small portion of lime, or alumine. 



GLOSSARY. 173 

R. 

adicals. A chemical term for the Elements of bodies; 
which see. 

compound. When the base of an acid is 
composed of two or more substances, it is said that 
the acid is formed of a compound radical. 

Reagents. Substances which are added to mineral waters, 
or other liquids, as tests to discover their nature 
and composition. 

Relgar. Red sulphurretted oxide of arsenic. 

Receivers. Globular glass vessels adapted to retorts for 
the purpose of preserving and condensing the vo- 
latile matter raised in distillation. 

Rectification. Is the re-distilling a liquid to render it 
more pure, or more concentrated, by abstracting 
only a part. 

Reduction. The restoration of metallic oxides to their 
original state of metals, which is usually effected 
by means of charcoal and fluxes. 

Refining. The process of separating the perfect metals 
from other metallic substances, by what is called 
cupellation. 

Refractory. A term applied to earths or metals that are 
either infusible, or that require an extraordinanary 
degree of heat to change or melt them. 

Refrigeration. A method of chrystallizing salts. 

Refrigeratory. A contrivance of any kind, which, by 
containing cold water, answers the purpose of con- 
densing the vapour or gas that arises in distillation. 
A worm -tub is a refrigeratory. 

Registers. Openings in chimneys, or other parts of che- 
mical furnaces, with sliding doors, to regulate the 
quantity of atmospheric air admitted to the fire- 
place. 

Regulus. Signifies a pure metallic substance, freed from 
all extraneous matters. 

Repulsion* A principle whereby the particles of bodies 
are prevented from coming into actual contact. 
P 2 



174 GLOSS ARY. 

Residuum. What is left in a pot or retort after the more 
valuable part has been drawn off. Thus the sul- 
phate of potash which remains in the pot after the 
distillation of nitrous acid, is called the residuum. 
It is sometimes called the caput mortmnn. 

Resins- Vegetable juices concreted by evaporation 
either spontaneously or by fire. Their character- 
istic is solubility in alcohol, and not in water. — 
They owe their solidity chiefly to their union with 
oxygen. 

Retort. A vessel in the shape of a pear, with its neck 
bent downwards, used in distillation : the extre- 
mity of which neck fits into that of another bottle, 
called a receiver. 

Reverberatory* An oven or furnance in which the flame 
is confined by a dome which occasions it to be beat 
down upon the floor of the furnace before it pass- 
es into the chimney. 

Revivification. See Reduction^ which is a synonymous 
term ; though M revivification'* is generally used 
when speaking of quicksilver. 

Reacting. A preparative operation in metallurgy to dis- 
sipate the sulphur, arsenic, &,c., with which a metal 
may be combined. 

Rockcrystal. Crystallized silex. 

Rust. As of iron, is the oxide of this metal. The ordi- 
nary rust of iron, is the sub-carbonated oxide of that 
metal Rust is, however, a general term for what 
is properly known by the name of metallic oxide. 

Ruby. A precious stone of which there are several 
varieties. Of these the sapphire is the hardest and 
held in the highest estimation. The red sapphire 
when perfect is more valuable than a diamond of 
the same size. 

S. 

Sauharum Saturni, The old name for the acetate of lead. 

Salifiable bases. All the metals, alkalies, and earths, 
which are capable of combining with acids, and- 
forming salts, are called salifiable bases, 



GLOSS ARY. 175 

Saline- Partaking of the properties of a salt. 

Saltsnutral. A class of substances formed by the com- 
bination or saturation of an acid with an alkali, an 
earth, or other salifiable base. 

Salts, triple. Salts formed by the combination of an acid 

. - with two bases or radicals. The tartrate of soda 
and potash (Rochelle salt) is an instance of this 
kind of combination. 

— W? SeeAKA. 

Sandiver. A matter, composed of different salts, which 
rises as a pellicle on the surface of the pots in which 
glass is melted. It is used as a flux in the fusion 
of ores, and for other purposes. 

Sap-colours. A name given to various expressed vegeta- 
ble juices of a viscid nature, which are inspissated 
by slow evaporation for the use of painters, &.c. ; 
sap-green, gamboge, &c. are of this class. 

Sapphire. A species of the ruby. ^ 

Saponaceous. A term applied to any substance which is 
of the nature or appearance of soap. 

Saturation. The act of impregnating a fluid with another 
substance, till no more can be received or imbibed. 
A fluid which holds as much of any substance as it 
can dissolve, is said to be saturated with that sub- 
stance. A solid body may in the same way be sa-. 
turated with a fluid. 

Selenite. A salt existing in spring water, formed by sul- 
phuric acid and lime. Its proper chemical name is 
Sulphate of lime. 

Semi-metal. A name formerly given to those metals 
which are neither malleable, ductile, nor fixed, if 
exposed to the fire. 

Siliceous earths. A term used to describe a variety of 
natural substances, which are composed chiefly oi" 
silex ; as quartz, flint, sand, &c. 

Simple substances. Synonymous wilhElement si Which see, 

Smelting. The operation of fusing ores for the purpose 
of separating the metals they contain, from the sul- 
phur and arsenic with which they are mixed, and 
also from other heterogenous matter. 



176 GLOSSARY. 

Solubility- A characteristic of most salts. See Solution* 

Solution. The perfect union of a solid substance with a 
fluid. Salts dissolved in water are proper examples 
of solution. 

Spars. A name formerly given to various crystallized 
stones ; such as the fluor, or Derbyshire spar, the 
adamantine spar, &c. 

Specific gravity. See the word Gravity. 

Spelter. The commercial name of zinc* 

Spirit. A term used by the early chemists to denote all 
volatile fluids, collected by distillation. 

Spirit proof . A term made use of to describe such ardent 
spirits as are of the same strength as good brandy. 

Stalactites. Certain concretions of calcareous earth 
found suspended like isicles in caverns. They are 
formed by the oozing of water through the crevi- 
ces, charged with this kind of earth. 

Steatites, A kind of stone composed of silex, iron, and 
magnesia. Also called French chalk, Spanish chalk, 
and soap-rock. 

Sublimation. A process whereby certain volatile sub- 
stances are raised by heat, and again condensed by 
cold into a solid form. Flowers of sulphur are made 
in this way. The soot of our common fires is a fa- 
miliar instance of this process. 

Sublimate. A name given to several mercurial prepara- 
tions. 

Subsalts. Salts with less acid than is sufficient to neu- 
tralize their radicals. 

Sugar. A well known substance, found in a variety of 
vegetables, composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and 
carbon. 

Sulphates. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with the sulphuric acid. 

Sulphites. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with si^phurous acid. 

Sulphurets. Combinations of alkalies, or metals, with 
sulphur. 

Sulphuretted. A substance is said to be sulphuretted 
when it is combined with sulphur. Thus we say. 
sulphuretted hydrogen, &c. 



GLOSSARY. 177 

Super salts, with an excess of acid. 

Synthesis. When a body is examined by dividing it into 
its components parts, it is called analysis ; but when 
we attempt to prove the nature of a substance by 
the union of its principles, the operation is called 
synthesis. 

Syphon. A bent tube used by chemists for drawing liquids 
from one vessel into another. It is sometimes cal- 
led a Crane. 



Tartrates. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with the acid of tartar. 

Talc. A stone of a white grey, yellowish or greenish co- 
lour. It is soft and soapy to the touch, and is com- 
posed of very thin semi-transparent plates much 
tenderer and more brittle than mica. 

Tan or Tannin. A vegetable principle found in large 
quantities in the bark of oak trees. It obtained that 
name from its use in the tanning of leather. 

Temperature. The absolute quantity of caloric which is 
attached to any body, occasions the degree of tem- 
perature of that body. 

Tenacity. Is a term used when speaking of glutinous 
bodies. It is also expressive of the adhesion of one 
substance to another. 

Test. That part of a cupel which is impregnated with 
litharge in the operation of refining lead. The 
name of whatever is employed in chemical experU 
ments to detect the several ingredients of any com- 
position. 

Test-papers. Papers impregnated with certain chemical 
re-agents ; such as litmus, termeric, radish, &c. 
They are used to dip into fluids to ascertain by a 
change of colours the presence of acids and alkalies. 

Thermometer. An instrument to show the relative heat 
of bodies. Fahrenheit's thermometer is that used 
in England. 

Tincal. The commercial name of crude borax. 



If8 GLOSSARY. 

Topaz. A species of precious stone, among the varieties 
of which some are rendered electric by heat, others 
by inerfc friction. 

Tinctures. Solutions of substances in spirituous men- 
stura, or solvents, 

Torref action. An operation similar to roasting ; which 
see. 

Tourmalin. A precious stone more or less transparent, 
and generally of a shining black : like topaz it is ren- 
dered electic by heat. 

Transmutation, A favourite term among the Alche- 
mists, signifying the changing of one metal to ano- 
ther, which they supposed possible. 

Trituration. A chemical operation whereby substances 
are united by friction. Amalgams are made by 
this method. 

Tubulated. Retorts which have a hole at the top for in- 
serting the materials to be operated upon, without 
taking them out of the sand heat, are called tubu- 
lated retorts. 

Tutenag, (vulgarly called tooth and eg^ metal.) An In- 
dian name for zinc. Chinese copper is also called 
by this name, which is a compound of copper, tin, 
and arsenic, much resembling silver in colour. 



Vacuum* A space unoccupied by matter. The term is 
generally applied to the exhaustion of atmospheric 
air, by chemical or philosophical means. 

tfapour. This term is used by chemists to denote such 
exhalations only as can be condensed and rendered 
liquid again at the ordinary and atmospheric tem- 
perature, in opposition to those which are perma* 
nently elastic. 

Vats. Large chemical vessels, generally of wood, for 
making infusions, &c. 

Vital air. Oxygen gas. 

Vitrification. When solid substances have undergone 
very intense heat, so as to be fused thereby, they 



GLOSSARY* 179 

frequently have an appearance resembling glass, 
They are then said to be vitrified, or to have under- 
gone vitrification. 

Vitriols. A class of substances, either eariby or metal- 
lic, which are combined with the vitriolic acid. 
Thus there is vitriol of lime, vitriol of iron, vitriol 
of cop-per, Stc. These salts are now called Sul- 
phates, because the acid which forms them is called 
sulphuric acid. 

Vitriolated Tartar. The old name for sulphate of potash, 

Volatile alkali Another name for ammonia. 

Volatile salts . The commercial name for carbonate of 
ammonia, 

Volatility. A property of some bodies, which disposes 
them to assume the gaseous state. This property 
seems to be owing to their affinity for caloric. 

Volume. A term made use of by modern chemists to ex* 
press the space occupied by gaseous or other bodies. 

Union, chemical. When a mere mixture of two or more 
substances is made, they are said to be mechanical- 
ly united ; but when each or either substance forms 
a component part of the product, the substances 
have formed a chemical union. 

W 

Wadd. The name given by miners to plumbago or cor- 
buret of iron, known in common by the very im- 
proper name of black lead. 

Water. The most common of all fluids, composed of 85 
parts of oxygen, and 15 of hydrogen. 

— — 'mineral. Waters which are impregnated with 
mineral and other substances, are known by this 
appellation. These minerals are generally held in 
solution by carbonic, sulphuric, or muriatic acid. 

Way dry. A term used by chemical writers when treat- 
ing of analysis or decomposition. By decomposing 
in the dry-way, is meant, by the agency of fire. 

Way humid. A term used in the same manner as the 
foregoing, but expressive of decomposition in a 
fluid sicate, or by means of water, and chemical re- 
agents, or tests, 



180 GLOSSARY* 

Welding heat. That degree of heat in which two pieces 
of iron, or other metal, may be united by hammer* 
ing. 

Wormtub. A chemical vessel with a pewter worm fixed 
in the inside, and the intermediate space filled with 
water. Its use is to cool liquors during distillation, 
* See Refrigeratory. 

Z. 

Zaffre. An oxide of cobalt, mixed with a portion of sili- 
ceous matter. It is imported in this state from 
Saxony. 

Zero. The point from which the scale of a thermometer 
is graduated. The thermometer of Farenheit has 
its zero at that point at which it stands when im- 
mersed in a mixture of snow and common salt. 



EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. 

Fig. 1. A is a pneumatic tub. K, K, a shelf on which the inverted glass 
jars B, G, F, are placed. C and E are glass retorts. (See also page 24.) 

" Fig. 2. A is a cylindrical vessel of tin, thirteen inches high, and twen- 
ty-one in circumference, open at cr, so as to admit a lamp, with a round 
aperture in the top, three i nches in diameter. B is a circular case, four 
inches high, formed of two pieces of the same metal, which include a 
column of atmospheric air, one inch thick, at the top and on the sides. 
The lower part has an opening five inches in diameter, and in the middle 
of the upper part, there is an aperture to receive the neck of an oiji flask. 
C is a flask from which proceeds the tube D, which enters the bettle E. 

" In using this apparatus, the flask, containing the subject of the ope- 
ration, must be placed on the cylindrical body A. The case B is then to 
be put over the flask, and the tube F), which enters a perforated cork, 
luted to it with a strip of paper, covered with a paste made of flour and 
water. The atmospheric air which the case B contains, is a bad conduc- 
tor of heat ; hence upon applying an Argand lamp to the bottom of the 
fiask, the heat is accumulated round its sides, and thus prevented from 
flying off into the air. 

" Fig. 3. A is the cylindrical vessel of tin, E the case containing the at- 
mospheric air, and Fan oil flask, on the neck of which, the head of an 
alembic B, made of tin or copper, seven inches high, is placed C, th© 
head of this vessel, thirteen inches long, enters an oil-flask D. 

" To use this apparatus, the flask must be placed on the top of the 
cylindrical body A. The vessel containing the atmospheric air, is then 
to be placed over the flask, and the head of the alembic fixed to its 
neck. G, the part over the top of the head of the alembic must be 
filled with cold water.'' 



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